3.5-3.6 Body Systems Flashcards
The collective components and structures that work together to move the body: muscular, skeletal, and nervous systems.
Human Movement System (HMS)
A concept that describes the human body as a chain of interdependent links that work together to perform movement.
Kinetic Chain
A network of specialized cells called neurons that transmit and coordinate signals, providing a communication network within the human body.
Nervous System
Specialized cell that is the functional unit of the nervous system.
Provide the nervous system with the ability to communicate with itself, as well as with the outside environment.
Process and transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.
Form the core of the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves
Neuron
What are neurons composed of?
Neurons are composed of three main parts: cell body, axon, and dendrites
Cellular structure or organelle that contains the majority of the cell’s genetic material in the form of chromosomes.
Nucleus
Tiny cellular structures that perform specific functions within a cell. Examples include nuclei, mitochondria, lysosomes, ribosomes, and the endoplasmic reticulum.
Organelles
The parts of the cell that use nutrients to create energy for the cell; commonly known as the powerhouses of the cell.
Mitochondria
A part of the body, such as a muscle or organ, that receives a signal from a neuron to produce a physiological response.
Effector Sites
Minerals that have an electrical charge to help transmit nerve impulses throughout the body, such as sodium, potassium, and magnesium.
Electrolytes
A division of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Nerves that connect the rest of the body to the central nervous system.
Peripheral Nervous Systems (PNS)
Sensory pathway that relays information to the central nervous system.
Afferent Pathway
A motor pathway that relays information from the central nervous system to the rest of the body.
Efferent Pathway
Neurons located within the spinal cord and brain that transmit impulses between afferent and efferent neurons.
Interneurons
Specialized structures located throughout the body that convert environmental stimuli (heat, light, sound, taste, motion) into sensory information that the brain and spinal cord use to produce a response
subdivided into mechanoreceptors, nociceptors, chemoreceptors, and photoreceptors
Sensory Receptors
Sensory receptors use the what pathway to send information to the CNS?
Afferent Pathway
Specialized structures that respond to mechanical forces (touch and pressure) within tissues and then transmit signals through sensory nerves.
Arguably relate most to the science of human movement, making them the most important for fitness professionals to understand
Mechanoreceptors
Specialized structures that respond to pain
Nociceptors
Specialized structures that respond to chemical interaction (smell and taste)
Chemoreceptors
Specialized structures that respond to light (vision)
Photoreceptors
What are the subdivisions of the PNS?
Somatic and autonomic nervous systems
Nerves that serve the outer areas of the body and skeletal muscle and are largely responsible for the voluntary control of movement.
Somatic Nervous System
A division of the peripheral nervous system that supplies neural input to organs that run the involuntary processes of the body (e.g., circulating blood, digesting food, producing hormones).
Autonomic Nervous System
Subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that works to increase neural activity and put the body in a heightened state.
Increases neural activity and signals different endocrine organs to release hormones, such as adrenaline, that increase heart rate, breathing, and alertness. This process is often termed fight or flight, where the body is put into a more excited (i.e., heightened) state in anticipation of an increase in activity
Sympathetic Nervous System
Subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that works to decrease neural activity and put the body in a more relaxed state.
Decreases neural activity by suspending the release of excitatory hormones. This puts the body in a more relaxed state, which is often termed rest and digest
Parasympathetic Nervous System
What are the three primary functions of the nervous system?
sensory, integrative, and motor functions
Ability of the nervous system to sense changes in either the internal or external environment.
Sensory Function
The body’s ability to naturally sense its general orientation and relative position of its parts.
Proprioception
The ability of the nervous system to analyze and interpret the sensory information to allow for proper decision-making, which produces an appropriate response.
Integrative Function
The neuromuscular (or nervous and muscular systems) response to the integrated sensory information.
Motor Function
Sensory receptors sensitive to change in length of the muscle and the rate of that change.
Muscle Spindles
Neurological signal from the muscle spindle that causes a muscle to contract to prevent excessive lengthening.
Stretch Reflex
A specialized sensory receptor located at the point where skeletal muscle fibers insert into the tendons of skeletal muscle; sensitive to changes in muscular tension and rate of tension change.
Golgi Tendon Organ (GTO)
Receptors located in and around the joint capsule that respond to pressure, acceleration, and deceleration of the joint.
Joint Receptors
The concept that the brain will continually change or grow, reforming neural pathways throughout an individual’s entire life span. (Neuronal changes)
Neuroplasticity
The interconnection of neurons in the brain and spinal cord. (Neuronal connections)
Neurocircuitry
What are the 3 stages of motor skill development?
Stage 1 (cognitive): The client is just learning a skill. They understand the goals of the skill and develop movement strategies and can perform the skill but with inconsistent performance.
Stage 2 (associative): The client begins to understand the skill. Through practice, they refine the skill and movement strategy and can perform the skill with less error.
Stage 3 (autonomous): The client has mastered the skill. They perform the skill consistently with no error and independently modify the skill without error.
Specific movements through the coordinated effort of the sensory and motor subsystems.
Motor Skills
A description of the bones of the body.
Skeletal System
A condition of reduced bone mineral density, which increases risk of bone fracture.
Osteoporosis
The sites where two bones meet and movement occurs as a result of muscle contraction.
Joints
What are the 2 parts of the skeleton?
- axial skeletal system
2. appendicular skeletal system
A division of the skeletal system consisting of the skull, the rib cage, and the vertebral column. (80 bones)
Axial Skeleton
A division of the skeletal system consisting of the arms, legs, and pelvic girdle. (126 bones)
Appendicular Skeleton
How many bones are in the human body?
206 bones
Rigid rods where muscles attach.
Levers
The process by which bone is constantly renewed by the resorption and formation of the bone structure.
Remodeling
Special cells that break down and remove old bone tissue.
Osteoclasts
Special cells that form and lay down new bone tissue.
Osteoblasts
Scientific explanation of how remodeling (new bone growth) occurs along the lines of stress placed on the bone.
Wolff’s law
What are the 5 major types of bones in the skeletal system?
- long
- short
- flat
- irregular
- sesamoid
Long, cylindrical shaft with irregular or widened ends
ex:
Humerus (i.e., the upper arm bone)
Femur (i.e., the thigh bone)
Long bones
Similar in length and width and appear somewhat cubical in shape
Ex:
Carpals of the wrist
Tarsals of the ankle
Short bones
Thin, protective surfaces that provide broad surfaces for muscles to attach
ex:
Scapulae (i.e., the shoulder blades)
Sternum (i.e., the breast plate)
Ribs
Flat bones
Unique shape and function from all other bone types
ex:
Vertebrae (i.e., the spinal column)
Irregular bones
Small, often round bones embedded in a joint capsule or found in locations where a tendon passes over a joint
ex:
Patella (i.e., the kneecap)
Sesamoid bones
What are the 2 categories of bone markings?
- depressions
2. processes
Flattened or indented portions of bone.
Depressions
What are two common types of bone depressions?
- fossa
2. sulcus
a groove in a bone that allows soft tissue (i.e., muscle, tendons, and ligaments) to pass through.
sulcus bone depression
Projections protruding from the bone where tendons and ligaments can attach.
Processes
Bones that house the spinal cord; consists of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbosacral regions.
Vertebral Column (Spinal Column)
Bundle of nerves housed within the vertebrae.
Spinal cord
First seven vertebrae starting at the top of the spinal column
Form a flexible framework and provide support and motion for the head
Cervical spine (C1–C7)
Twelve vertebrae located in the upper and middle back behind the ribs
Each vertebra articulates with a rib helping form the rear anchor of the rib cage
Larger than cervical vertebrae and increase in size from top to bottom
Thoracic spine (T1–T12)
Five vertebrae of the low-back below the thoracic spine
Largest segments in the spinal column
Support most of the body’s weight and are attached to many back muscles
Lumbar spine (L1–L5)
Triangular bone located below the lumbar spine
Composed of five vertebrae that fuse together as the body develops into adulthood
Sacrum
Located below the sacrum, more commonly known as the tailbone
Composed of three to five small fused bones
Coccyx
Fibrous cartilage structures between vertebrae that act as shock absorbers and assist with movement.
Intervertebral Discs
Represents a position in which the vertebrae and associated structures are under the least amount of load and can most optimally support functional movement.
Neutral Spine
What are the three major curvatures of the adult human spine?
- Posterior (concave) cervical curve (hollowed or rounded inward)
- Posterior (convex) thoracic curve (curved or rounded outward)
- Posterior (concave) lumbar curve (hollowed or rounded inward)
Movement of a limb that is visible.
Description of bone movement (e.g., flexion and extension)
Osteokinematics
The description of joint surface movement; consists of three major types: roll, slide, and spin.
description of joint movement (i.e., the interaction between two bone surfaces)
Arthrokinematics
A joint with a fluid-filled joint capsule.
Most common joints associated with human movement.
Comprise approximately 80% of all the joints in the body and have the greatest capacity for motion
Synovial joints
A gliding joint that moves in only one plane, either back and forth or side to side.
Nonaxial
Joints that have no joint capsule, fibrous connective tissue, or cartilage in the uniting structure.
An example of this joint includes sutures of the skull
Nonsynovial Joint
A fibrous connective tissue that connects bone to bone.
Ligament
What are the 2 primary proteins in a ligament?
- collagen
2. elastin
A protein found in connective tissue, muscles, and skin that provides strength and structure. It is the most abundant protein in the human body.
Collagen
A protein that provides elasticity to skin, tendons, ligaments, and other structures.
Elastin
What are the three types of muscles in the body?
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
The type of muscle tissue that connects to bones and generates the forces that create movement.
Skeletal Muscle
Connective tissue that surrounds muscles and bones.
Fascia
Inner layer of fascia that directly surrounds an entire muscle, commonly referred to as the “deep fascia.”
Epimysium
Largest bundles of fibers within a muscle. Fascicles are surrounded by perimysium.
Fascicles
Connective tissue surrounding a muscle fascicle.
Perimysium
Connective tissue that wraps around individual muscle fibers within a fascicle.
Endomysium
Connect muscles to bones.
When overstretched or torn, this is known as a strain.
Tendons
Connect bones to bones
When overstretched or torn, it is known as a sprain.
Ligament
Glucose that is deposited and stored in bodily tissues, such as the liver and muscle cells; the storage form of carbohydrate.
Glycogen
Protein-based molecule that carries oxygen molecules into the muscles.
Myoglobin
Each individual muscle fiber is then made up of these structures
The contractile components of a muscle cell; the myofilaments (actin and myosin) are contained within this.
Myofibrils
The filaments of a myofibril; include actin and myosin.
Myofilaments
The thin, stringlike, myofilament that acts along with myosin to produce muscular contraction.
Actin
The thick myofilament that acts along with actin to produce muscular contraction.
Myosin
The structural unit of a myofibril composed of actin and myosin filaments between two Z-lines.
The actin and myosin filaments form a number of repeating sections within the myofibrils. Each one of these particular repeating sections is known as X
Sarcomere
The meeting point of each sarcomere.
Z line
The nervous system’s signal that tells a muscle to contract.
Neural activation
The specialized site where the nervous system communicates directly with muscle fibers.
Neuromuscular Junction
A junction or small gap between the motor neuron and muscle cells.
Synapse
A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers that it innervates.
Motor Unit
Nerve impulse that is relayed from the central nervous system, through the peripheral nervous system, and into the muscle across the neuromuscular junction.
Action potential
Chemical messengers that cross the synapse between neuron and muscle and assist with nerve transmission.
Neurotransmitters
A neurotransmitter that helps the action potential cross the synapse into the muscle, which initiates the steps in a muscle contraction.
Acetylcholine (ACh)
The series of steps in muscle contraction involving how myosin (thick) and actin (thin) filaments slide past one another to produce a muscle contraction, shortening the entire length of the sarcomere.
Sliding Filament Theory
The physiological process of converting an electrical stimulus to a muscle contraction.
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
What facilitates the nerve impulse from the CNS to the neuromuscular junction?
Electrolytes (sodium & potassium)
During excitation-contraction coupling, the nerve impulse travels into the muscle infrastructure stimulating a small organ called the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release what electrolyte?
Calcium
The myosin heads bind to actin and pull them toward the sarcomere center, which slides the filaments past each other, shortening the muscle.
Power Stroke
A high-energy molecule that serves as the main form of energy in the human body; known as the energy currency of the body.
provide energy to the myosin heads during muscle contraction
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
The length of a muscle when it is not actively contracting or being stretched.
Resting length
The two major principles in sliding filament theory include the following:
- A sarcomere shortens as a result of the Z-lines moving closer together (i.e., converging).
- The Z-lines converge as the result of myosin filaments’ heads attaching to the actin filament’s heads, pulling the actin across the myosin, resulting in shortening of the muscle fiber.
What are the most essential electrolytes for muscle function?
calcium, potassium, sodium, and water
This electroylte, which is electrically conductive, can be considered the main electrolyte of the body because it is involved in most scenarios of bodily function
Water
Muscle fibers that are small in size, generate lower amounts of force, and are more resistant to fatigue.
ex: maintaining upright posture
“Slow twitch”
higher myoglobin (oxygen carrying) - “red fibers”
Type I muscle fibers
Muscle fibers that are larger in size, generate higher amounts of force, and are faster to fatigue.
ex: running/jumping
“Fast twitch”
limited myoglobin (lower oxygen) - “white fibers”
Type II muscle fibers
Motor units cannot vary the amount of force they generate; they either contract maximally or not at all.
All-or-Nothing Principle
The smallest blood vessels and the site of exchange of elements between the blood and the tissues.
Capillaries
Type II muscle fibers are subdivided into 2 types -
type IIa (slightly oxidative capacity) and type IIx (lower oxidative capacity)
A system of the body composed of the heart, blood, blood vessels, lungs, and airways.
Made up of
- Cardiovascular system
- Respiratory system
Cardiorespiratory System
A system of the body, also known as the circulatory system, that transports blood to tissues of the body.
Cardiovascular system
Chamber within the chest that contains the heart and lungs.
Thoracic Cavity
The space in the chest between the lungs that contains all the internal organs of the chest (e.g., heart, esophagus) except the lungs.
Mediastinum
Muscle of the heart. (typically involuntary)
Cardiac Muscle
The type of muscle tissue that connects to bones and generates the forces that create movement.
Skeletal Muscle
An involuntary nonstriated muscle type that is found in organs.
Smooth Muscle
The contractile components of a muscle cell; the myofilaments (actin and myosin) are contained within a myofibril.
Myofibrils
The structural unit of a myofibril, composed of actin and myosin filaments between two Z-lines.
Sarcomere
Superior chamber(s) of the heart that gathers blood returning to the heart.
Atrium (atria)
Inferior chamber of the heart that pumps blood to the lungs and body.
Ventricle
Found in the heart, these formations help hold together muscle cells.
Intercalated discs
The number of heart beats per minute while at complete rest.
Resting Heart Rates (RHR)
Located in the right atrium, this node initiates an electrical signal that causes the heart to beat.
Sinoatrial (SA) node
Located between the atria and ventricles, this node delays the impulse from the sinoatrial node before allowing it to pass to the ventricles.
Atrioventricular (AV) node
The amount of blood pumped out of the heart with each contraction.
Stroke Volume
The filled volume of the ventricle before contraction.
End-diastolic volume
The volume of blood remaining in the ventricle after ejection.
End-systolic volume
The measurement of the number of times a heart beats within a specified time period (usually 1 minute).
Heart Rate (HR)
When the heart rate is less than 60 beats per minute.
Bradycardia
When the heart rate is greater than 100 beats per minute.
Tachycardia
The overall performance of the heart (heart rate × stroke volume).
Cardiac output (Q)
The difference between the end-diastolic volume and the end-systolic volume represents what?
stroke volume
Fluid that circulates in the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins; it carries nutrients and oxygen to all parts of the body and also transports waste products from the body to other compartments or organs for either processing (e.g., liver) or excretion (e.g., kidney).
blood
There are three kinds of cells in the blood:
red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
Substances within the blood that attach to cells, aid in growth and development, and help with healing after injury
growth factors
Cells within the body that divide and develop into specialized cells, such as brain cells, blood cells, heart cells, and bone cells.
stem cells
Network of hollow tubes that circulates blood throughout the body.
blood vessels
Vessels that transport blood away from the heart.
arteries
The smallest blood vessels and the site of exchange of elements between the blood and the tissues.
capillaries
Vessels that transport blood back to the heart.
veins
Small arteries that eventually divide into capillaries.
arterioles
The largest artery in the body, which carries blood away from the heart
aorta
Small veins that allows blood to drain from capillaries into the larger veins.
venules
The formation of new capillaries.
Vasculogenesis
The formation of new capillaries from existing blood vessels.
Angiogenesis
The accumulation of blood into the extremities due to slow blood flow though the veins (venous return) or backflow.
Venous pooling
The outward pressure exerted by the blood on the vessel walls; reported as systolic/ diastolic.
Blood Pressure (BP)
The amount of resistance in the arteries that must be overcome for blood to flow.
Peripheral resistance
X reflects the pressure in the arteries when the heart contracts
systolic pressure
X reflects the arterial pressure during relaxation of the heart, when the heart fills with blood between beats.
diastolic pressure
Consistently elevated blood pressure.
Hypertension
A bodily system, also known as the pulmonary system, that brings oxygen into the lungs from breathed air while removing carbon dioxide from the lungs into the outside air; includes airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles.
Respiratory System
Composed of skeletal structures (bones) and soft tissues (muscles) that work together to allow for proper respiratory mechanics as well as pumping blood back to the heart during inspiration.
Respiratory pump
The process of contracting the inspiratory muscles to move air into the body. (inhale)
Inspiration
The process of actively or passively relaxing the inspiratory muscles to move air out of the body. (exhale)
Expiration
A process that involves expiring against a closed windpipe, creating additional intra-abdominal pressure and spinal stability.
This will temporarily increase blood pressure. This technique should be minimized when training a client diagnosed with high blood pressure (hypertension).
Valsalva maneuver
The respiratory passages are divided into two categories:
the conducting airways and the respiratory airways
The process of getting oxygen from the environment to the tissues of the body.
Diffusion
Respiratory rate that is too fast; greater than 24 breaths per minute.
Tachypnea
Respiratory rate that is too slow; fewer than 8 breaths per minute.
Bradypnea
Shortness of breath or labored breathing.
Dyspnea
Breathing deeply by allowing the expansion of the abdominal area.
Diaphragmatic breathing
The breakdown and utilization of fat for energy.
Lipolysis
A substance in the body that causes a specific reaction or change.
Enzyme
Cells that release substances into the bloodstream (such as hormones) or other surface of the body.
Glands
Chemical messenger released from a gland that travels to cells to activate a specific function.
Hormone
Cell that receives a message from a hormone or enzyme. Target cells exert an action after being stimulated or activated.
Target (receptor) cell
What are the primary endocrine glands?
hypothalamus, pineal, pancreas, thyroid, pituitary, adrenal, and reproductive glands
A gland located in the brain that communicates with the pituitary gland.
Hypothalamus
A small gland in the brain that secretes the hormone melatonin, which helps regulate sleep cycles.
Pineal Gland
An organ with numerous functions, including the production of insulin, glucagon, and digestive juices.
Pancreas
An endocrine gland, located in the anterior neck, responsible for the secretion of many hormones, including thyroxin and calcitonin.
Thyroid
An endocrine gland that controls the secretion of many hormones, including growth hormone. (balls)
three different sections or lobes—the anterior, intermediate, and posterior lobe
Pituitary Gland
A gland, located just above the kidneys, responsible for the secretion of catecholamines and cortisol.
Adrenal Gland
Glands, such as the ovaries or testes, that serve sex-specific functions.
Reproductive Glands
A hormone secreted by the pancreas that is responsible for glucose metabolism.
Insulin
A hormone secreted by the pancreas that regulates blood glucose and functions opposite to insulin.
primarily works to raise blood glucose levels by triggering the release of glycogen stores from the liver
Glucagon
Intermediate forms of nutrients used in metabolic reactions to create adenosine triphosphate.
Substrates
Glucose that is deposited and stored in bodily tissues, such as the liver and muscle cells; the storage form of carbohydrate.
Glycogen
An anabolic hormone produced by the pituitary gland that is responsible for growth and development.
Growth Hormone
Hormones produced by the adrenal glands that are part of the stress response known as the fight-or-flight response.
epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) and norepinephrine
Catecholamines
In preparation for activity, the hypothalamus(part of the brain) and the nervous system of the body triggers the adrenal medulla to secrete more epinephrine. This will have several specific physiological effects that will help sustain exercise activity, such as:
Increase heart rate and stroke volume Elevate blood glucose levels Redistribute blood to working tissues Open up the airways Improve the body’s ability to break down and use fat for energy (McArdle et al., 2016)
Metabolic process that breaks down molecules into smaller units used for energy.
Catabolic
The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources (proteins and fats).
Glucogenesis
Excessive frequency, volume, or intensity of training, resulting in reduction of performance, which is also caused by a lack of proper rest and recovery.
Overtraining
typically referred to as a catabolic hormone (associated with tissue breakdown). Under times of stress, such as exercise, cortisol is secreted by the adrenal cortex and serves to maintain energy supply through the breakdown of fats and protein.
Cortisol
A hormone producing secondary male sex characteristics.
Testosterone
Metabolic process that synthesizes smaller molecules into larger units used for building and repairing tissues.
Raised levels of testosterone are indicative of this (tissue-building) status
Anabolic
Hormone that is produced primarily in the ovaries in the female, with small amounts produced in the adrenal glands in males
Estrogen
Hormone that is primarily an anabolic hormone that is responsible for most of the growth and development during childhood up until puberty, when the primary sex hormones take over that control
Growth Hormone
Anabolic hormone produced by the liver, which is responsible for growth and development.
Insulin-like growth factors (IGF)
The amount of energy required to maintain the body at rest.
Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
Thyroid hormone that helps the body use calcium properly to aid with maintaining bone mineral density.
Calcitonin
A condition that results in elevated blood glucose levels.
Glucose intolerance
An organ found below the liver, on the right side of the body, that receives bile from the liver and secretes it into the duodenum.
gall bladder
An organ in the upper-right abdominal cavity with numerous functions, including the production and secretion of bile, which is stored and concentrated in the gall bladder prior to release into the duodenum.
liver
In the digestive system, refers to movements of the anatomical structures that allow contents to pass through.
passage of food in digestive tract
motility
The mechanical process whereby the oral muscles break down food.
chewing
mastication
The muscle action of the gastrointestinal system that pushes food through the body during digestion.
Peristalsis
Multistep process that describes the passage of food through the body.
digestion
The process of nutrients being absorbed into the body during the digestive process.
absorbtion
The anatomical part of the digestive tract that allows food to pass from oral cavity to stomach.
esophagus
The act of taking food, liquid, or other substances into the body in preparation for digestion.
ingestion
A semifluid mass of digested food that is passed from the stomach to the small intestine.
chyme
Part of the small intestine that resides between the stomach and the jejunum.
Duodenum
Part of the small intestine that resides between the duodenum and the ileum.
Jejunum
The final section of the small intestine, located between the jejunum and the cecum and leads to the large intestine.
Ileum
