3.1 Biological content

Question 1

Draw and label a neuron.

Describe its parts.

Answer 1

(see page 157 and the key words on the side in the thick blue text book)

Question 2

Describe an action potential.

Answer 2

(see page 158 and the key words on the side in the thick blue text book)

Question 3

Describe synaptic transmission.

Draw this process.

Answer 3

(see page 158 and the key words on the side in the thick blue text book)

Question 4

What is the function of acetylcholine in the body?

Answer 4

A neurotransmitter.

Stimulates muscle contractions and has a key function in motor control and movement.

It is also necessary for memory and other cognitive functions such as attention and wakefulness/alertness.

Also involved in expressions of some emotions such as anger and sexuality.

Question 5

What is the function of noradrenaline in the body?

Answer 5

A neurotransmitter.

Associated with emotion, in mood control.

Involved in functions such as sleeping and dreaming as well as learning.

Question 6

What is the function of dopamine in the body?

Answer 6

A neurotransmitter.

A chemical precursor to noradrenaline so their functions are quite similar.

Related to emotion and cognitive functions, as well as posture and control of movement.

Also been associated with reinforcement in learning as well as dependency such as addictions.

Used in hormonal regulation such as control of the menstrual cycle in women.

Question 7

What is the function of serotonin in the body?

Answer 7

A neurotransmitter.

Most commonly associated with mood control, particularly in the limbic system in the brain.

involved in many other functions such as feeling pain, sleep regulating body temperature and hunger.

Question 8

What is the limbic system?

Answer 8

A set of structures in the brain associated with drives, emotions and mood.

Question 9

Give the definition of recreational drugs.

Answer 9

Those that are used in the absence of medical grounds, but are taken by users for personal enjoyment.

These re often referred to as psychoactive drugs because they alter brain function, which changes our mood, perception or conscious experience.

Question 10

What is the dopamine system?

Answer 10

A pathway in the brain which operates on the neurotransmitter dopamine, the release of which leads feelings of reward.

Question 11

What is the nucleus accumbens?

Answer 11

An area the midbrain associated with the brains reward system.

Question 12

What is euphoria?

Answer 12

An intense pleasurable feeling often referred to asa ‘high

Question 13

What is dysphoria?

Answer 13

Anintense dissatisfaction, anxiety or depression, discomfort and distress.

Question 14

What effect does alcohol have on humans?

Answer 14

Has a depressant effect on the nervous system; it acts to inhibit neural transmission by increasing the action of GABA (an inhibitory neurotransmitter)

Question 15

What effect does Opioids (e.g. heroin and morphine) have on humans?

Answer 15

Reduces GABA activity, which leads to overactivity go dopaminergic neurotransmission in the reward pathways of the brain.

Question 16

What effect does Amphetamines (e.g. methamphetamines) have on humans?

Answer 16

Increases dopamine and noradrenaline in the synapse by changing the reuptake process so that it works in revers.

Amphetamines force the release of these neurotransmitters, can block reuptake, and in high doses can inhibit their breakdown by enzymes.

Question 17

What effect does Cocaine have on humans?

Answer 17

Increases activity in the dopamine pathway by blocking the reuptake of dopamine.

Question 18

What effect does Nicotine have on humans?

Answer 18

Targets aspects of the dopamine pathway increasing the amount and transmission of dopamine by blocking the enzyme that breaks it down.

It also mimics acetylcholine and binds to nicotine receptors.

Question 19

How does addiction to a recreational drug occur?

Answer 19

(see page 161 in the thick blue text book)

Question 20

What does stimulation of a cats medial hypothalamus produce?

Answer 20

Offensive behaviour.

Question 21

What does stimulation of a dorsal hypothalamus produce?

Answer 21

Defensive behaviour.

Question 22

What does stimulation of a lateral hypothalamus produce?

Answer 22

Predatory behaviour.

Question 23

In animals, what is offensive behaviour?

Answer 23

Physically attack another animal.

Question 24

In animals, what is defensive behaviour?

Answer 24

Response to treat of attack.

Question 25

In animals, what is predatory behaviour?

Answer 25

Attacking another species to gain food.

Question 26

What 4 areas of the brain are associated with aggression?

Answer 26

• The midbrain
• The amygdala
• The hypothalamus
• The prefrontal cortex

(see page 163 + 164 in the thick blue text book for more info)

Question 27

Evaluate how brain structures can explain aggression.

Answer 27

LIMITATIONS:

• Work done on lag animals, problems with generalisability across species, human brain much more complex than cats and rodents. (some argue though that basics are the same between species, so experiments are worthwhile)
• Ethical considerations in use of animals, research is immoral as animals are harmed (some argue that using animals for this is the same as using them for meat)

SUPPORTING:

• Phineas Gage; Bair, Colledge and Mitchell (2001) found many patients with psychopathic behaviour patterns have very similar neurocognitive functioning to patients who have suffered damage to the amygdala. (phinease Gage was only one case study, though
• Raine.

(see page 164 in the thick blue text book)

Question 28

How can evolution explain aggression?

Answer 28

(look at own mind map in thick blue text book) (in pages 166-167)

Question 29

Explain Freud’s psychodynamic explanation of aggression.

Answer 29

2 innate drives he believed was motivation for all human behaviour:
- EROS (life instinct)
The energy of Eros (libido) is focused on preservation and enjoyment of life.

• THANATOS (death instinct)
  Drives towards death and destruction, initially directed towards the self.

Human behaviour seen as an interaction between these 2 opposing forces + prevent us from hurting ourselves;
The engird of Thanatos will often be redirected away from the person and towards others, resulting in aggression.

Humans are not uncontrollably aggressive all the time, because of:
Catharsis - A way of satisfying our urges without resorting to violent impulses by watching violence or taking part in minor aggression such as playing video games or sports.

Humans have 3 personalities growing up:

The id -
Birth -> 2 years
Completely driven by impulses of Eros and Thanatos with no though for consequences.
Id operates on pleasure principle, demanding the immediate gratification of its urges.

The ego -
2 years
Driven by the reality principle, the urges of id begin to be controlled and delayed.
The norms and rules of society are learned and, although the ego does not understand right from wrong, there is some appreciation of when and to what extent it is appropriate to show certain behaviours, such as aggression.

The superego -
between 3 - 6 years
Operates as the morality principle and takes the role of the ego to the next level by developing an understanding of right and wrong.
The urges of the id are now not only delayed until an appropriate time or place, but also the child begins to feel pride for acting correctly (the ego-ideal) or feel guilty for incorrect behaviour (the conscience).
At this point, aggressive impulses should be well controlled, assuming the superego is well developed in the individual.

Any issues in the development of either the ego or superego could result in problems in managing impulsive urges of the id and therefore aggressive behaviour could be frequent.

Question 30

Draw Freud’s model of personality structure, (the iceberg thing)

Answer 30

(see page 169 in the thick blue textbook)

Question 31

Compare Freud’s psychodynamic explanation to a biological explanation of aggression.

Answer 31

DIFFERENCES:
- Much scientific evidence for biological, but lack fin Freud’s. (Raine et al 1997)

• Biological: easy to design and conduct scientific studies that will allow a link to be established between biology and the behaviour, because we would be looking at objective data such as the amount of brain activity in different brain areas.
• Freud’s: Impossible to to physically see the id, ego etc. so makes the design of scientific to test this research very difficult. His ideas are more subjective. Id is in the unconscious mind, so even we don’t know we have it, how can we measure it?

(on page 169 in the thick blue text book)

Question 32

What is testosterone?

Answer 32

A hormone.

An androgen; this means it is a chemical that develops or maintains and male characteristics.

We all have testosterone but it is present in much greater degrees in the average make compared to females.

Question 33

Assess the role of hormones explaining aggression. (8)

Answer 33

(see paper tucked into pages 170 + 171 in the thick blue text book)