1.2 Social methods

Question 1

What is quantitative data?

Answer 1

Numerical data

Question 2

What is quantitative data?

Answer 2

Descriptive data

Question 3

What method/data is people taking a survey?

Answer 3

Self-report data/method.

Used to gather information about hoe people feel, their attitudes and opinions, personality traits and other traits.

Surveys typically are designed to gather a large amount of information, this can be done through a questionnaire or large-scale interview.

Question 4

Why are questionnaires used?

Answer 4

Questionnaires are designed to gather a large amount of data by accessing a large sample.

Questionnaires can be administered by postmodernists email, face to face or online, and often consist of questions that require information from participants about their attitudes, opinions, lifestyles and indeed any aspect of a person’s life.

Question 5

What are closed questions in a questionnaire?

Do they yield quantitative or qualitative data?

What is the strength of closed questions?

What is the trouble/limitation with closed questions?

What has been designed to prevent this.

Answer 5

Closed questions are questions that have preset fixed answers that a respondent has to select from by circling or ticking one that is the closest match to their opinion.

Closed questions yield quantitative data.

These can be yes/no response questions or where a list of opinions is available.

+ve:

• Respondents find them easy to answer
• Researchers can easily analyse this type of data
• ve:
• Can be frustrating if available answers do not match what the Pp would like to express
• Limited to how much info can be analysed (researcher cannot know why a respondent has answered that way), level of detail limited

Attitude scales have been designed to increase the level of detail achieved in a questionnaire. - strength of opinion can be gauged.

Question 6

What is the difference between a likert scale and a ranked scale?

Answer 6

Likert scale, Pps rate their opinion

Ranked scale, Pps order things from most to least for example.

Question 7

What are some issues with the design of questionnaires?

Answer 7

• Social desirability
  Respondent does not give a genuine answer, but one which depicts them in a more favourable light. (fit into social norms)

This can be problematic for research that investigates socially sensitive issues or attitudes that go against social norms.

However, some questionnaires have inbuilt lie detectors, which liars can be excluded from further analysis.

• Question construction
  Important that questions are not too technical, ambiguous or complex.
  Important that questions do not lead or mislead a respondent into giving a particular answer or ask personal questions because it violates the right to privacy.

Some likert scales are odd numbered, meaning Pps could select the middle ‘neutral’ option too many times.

Question 8

What is external reliability?

Answer 8

Refers to the consistency of a measure or finding over time.

Question 9

What is internal reliability?

How can it be a problem for questionnaires?

Answer 9

Refers to the consistency of measure within itself.

Internal reliability is a problem for questionnaires because often several different questions are used to measure the same trait or attitude.

The. various scales used by Adorno. et al. on conservatism, ethnocentrism etc., contained many items that collectively measured these concepts. But did they all equally measure the same concept?

In order to establish internal reliability, a split-half method can be employed.

Question 10

What is a test-retest method?

Answer 10

The same people are given the same questionnaire to complete again on a different occasion.

This literally means that the same people are given the same questionnaire to complete again on a different occasion.

If there responses are the same or very similar, external reliability can be established.

Question 11

What is a split-half method?

Answer 11

Splitting the questions into two halves and comparing the findings from both halves during analysis to ensure reliability.

If all of the questions are measuring the same concept, both halves should achieve the same score. If they do not, it suggests that some of the questions may be measuring a different concept.

Question 12

What is face validity?

Answer 12

Looking at each question and deciding whether it makes sense in terms of the contract being measured.

Question 13

What is predictive validity?

Answer 13

The extent to which results from a test or a study can predict future behaviour.

Question 14

What is concurrent validity?

Answer 14

A way of establishing validity that compares evidence form several studies testing the same thing to see if they agree.

Question 15

What is validity?

Answer 15

Validity refers to the extent to which something is measuring what it intends to measure.

If you design a questionnaire intending to measure attitudes about education, then you need to be sure that you design your questions so that they measure this attitude and nothing else.

Question 16

What is a structured interview?

Answer 16

Typically, structured interviews are standardised so that all respondents are asked the same question in the same way, often using closed questions that gather quantitative data.

Structured interviews tend to be easy to administer and do not need to establish a rapport between the researcher and respondent.

However, the data gathered can be superficial and lack depth, and the respondent may feel stifled and not be able to express their opinions full, which can be as frustrating as answering closed questions in a questionnaire.

Question 17

What is a semi-structured interview?

Answer 17

To avoid some of the problems with s structured interviews, semi-structured interviews are more conservational and dynamic.

A researcher has a set of questions that they aim to be answered, but do not have a standardised format to follow. This means that the conversation can flow a little bit better, while still achieving the research aim and getting relevant information form respondents.

This type of interview can gather both quantitative and qualitative data.

Question 18

What is an unstructured interview?

What are some issues surrounding this type of interview?

Answer 18

This type of interview begins with a loose research aim and gathers qualitative information from respondents.

Unlike structured interviews, the interviewer needs to be analytical during the interview so that they can probe and seek meaning from respondents. An unstructured interviewer needs to be skilled at achieving a good rapport with respondents and responsive to the information offered; they need good listening skills and should use non-judgemental language.

Ethical issues are important hen conduction any type of questionnaire or interview, but critical when using an unstructured interview because the qualitative data can make direct reference to quotes forms respondents. It is important that all respondent details are anonymised and personal details disguised. Due to the reflexive nature of an unstructured interview, the interviewer must deal sensitively when asking for personal information to ensure they do not breech the respondent’s right to privacy.

Question 19

How can an interviewer affect a respondent and how they answer?

What can we do to minimise this?

Answer 19

There are many characteristic that can influence the respondent:
- Sex
- Age
- Manner
- Personality
Can affect whether a respondent is truthful, or whether they disclose any information at all.

It is therefore important to predict that a make interviewer will be unlikely to obtain detailed information form a female Pp about their view marriage. This can be controlled by employing a female interviewer.

Question 20

What is random sampling?

Answer 20

Everyone has an equal chance of being selected.

A random sample can be achieved in a number of ways:

• Computers with a random generator
• Place names into a hat

Should result in a representative sample, although this may not always be the case because you can select an unrepresentative sample at random, too.

You still need to obtain consent form each Pp selected, if they decide not take part, you may be left with an unrepresentative sample.

Question 21

What is stratified sampling?

Answer 21

If the target population has salient characteristics that need to be proportionately represented in the sample recruited, a stratified sample technique can be used.

(see page 46 in the thick blue text book for an example)

Question 22

What is opportunity sampling?

Answer 22

Makes use of Pps who are availably.

This can involve a researcher going into a student common room and asking people to take part, or investigating passers-by in a high street.

Either way, the researcher has limited control over who is recruited and not everyone in a target population has an equal chance of being selected.

Question 23

What is volunteer sampling?

Answer 23

Self-selected Pps can be recruited by placing an advert in a newspaper or a student common room. Volunteers are self-selecting because they choose to take part; they are not approached by a researcher.

The researcher has no control over who volunteers and often a certain time of Pp may choose to take part. This can result in a sample bias. However, a researcher might pre-test volunteers before the main study and exclude those with characteristics they feel may not represent the target population.

Question 24

What is a skewed distribution?

Answer 24

When the values in a data set do not conform to a normal distribution (many scores around the mean and fewer at the extreme ends)

Question 25

What is interval/ratio data?

Answer 25

Data where an individual. score for each Pp is gathered, and the score can be intensified using a recognised scale with equal distances between each score, for example time, height.

Question 26

What is ordinal level data?

Answer 26

A level os measurement where numbers are rankings rather than scores in themselves,

e.g.
A rank order for attractiveness on a scale of 1-5

Question 27

What is the median?

Answer 27

A measure of central tendency that calculates the middle value when the the values in the data set are placed in rank order.

When the data set has an odd number of scores, it is simply the middle value.
However, if there is an even number of scores, the mean of the two middle values needs to be calculated.

(on page 48 in the thick blue text book if don’t understand)

Question 28

What is the mode?

Answer 28

A measure of central tendency that calculates the most frequents score in a data set. The mode is the value that occurs most frequently.

(on page 49 in the thick blue text book if don’t understand)

Question 29

What is the range?

Answer 29

The difference between the highest and lowest number.

on page 49 in the thick blue text book if don’t understand

Question 30

What is standard deviation?

Answer 30

Deviation refers to the distance of each value from the arithmetic mean.

(see page 49 in the thick blue text book)

Question 31

What is nominal data?

Answer 31

Where data forms discrete categories,

for example, hair colour can only be nominal data because it can only be described its categories of brown, blonde, red or black.

Question 32

What is the inferential test?

Answer 32

A statistical test that is performed on data to establish whether or not the results found were due to change factors or whether there was indeed significant relationship or difference found between the data.

Question 33

read page 51 in the thick blue text book.

Answer 33

understand?

Question 34

What is a normal distribution?

Answer 34

(see page 52 in the thick blue text book)

Question 35

What is a skewed distribution?

Answer 35

(see page 53 in the thick blue text book)

Question 36

What is a thematic analysis?

Answer 36

Recording themes, patterns or trends within data.

Its a way of analysing data without losing its meaningfulness completely.

This can be. done inductively or deductively:

INDUCTIVELY
The researcher would. read and. reread the qualitative data gathered and themes would emerge form the data without the researcher imposing any of their own ideas or expectations from it.

DEDUCTIVELY
The researcher would specify the themes that they will look for before analysing the data.

(read more on page 54 in the thick blue text book)

Question 37

What is being inductive?

Answer 37

Using known facts to produce general principles.

Question 38

What is being deductive?

Answer 38

Using the knowledge and information you have in order to understand something.

Question 39

What 4 ethical principles is the BPS ethical code based around?

Answer 39

• RESPECT
• COMPETENCE
• RESPONSIBILITY
• INTEGRITY

(see page 55 in the thick blue text book for information on them)

Question 40

In ethics, what does privacy of the Pp mean?

Answer 40

Pps should not be asked personal questions that they may find intrusive, and the researcher must not obtain personal data that a Pp would not voluntarily disclose.

Question 41

In ethics, what does confidentiality mean?

Answer 41

Pps should not be identified as part of the study. Their names can be anonymised.

Question 42

In ethics, what does informed consent mean?

Answer 42

Pps should be fully aware of the aims, procedure and implications of the research.

Question 43

In ethics, what does deception mean?

Answer 43

Pps should not be lied to or misguided about the nature of the study.

Question 44

In ethics, what does the right to withdraw mean?

Answer 44

Pps should be offered the opportunity to leave the study at any point without consequence.

This means that they can withdraw their data after the study if they chose (up to a negotiated point in time).

Question 45

In ethics, what does incentivised mean?

Answer 45

Given monetary reward or other form of gift to encourage participation in the study.

Question 46

In ethics, what does debrief mean?

Answer 46

A statement given to Pps on conclusion of a study which discloses fully the nature and implications of the research.