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General Physiology > 3 Chemical Signals in Animals > Flashcards

3 Chemical Signals in Animals Flashcards

Anki: 105 Image Occlusion Cards

1
Q

Regulatory mechanism: It conveys high-speed electrical signals along specialized cells called neurons, which regulate other cells.

A

nervous system

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2
Q

Regulatory mechanism: It secretes hormones that coordinate slower but longer-acting responses.

A

endocrine system

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3
Q

What is the function of the nervous system in regulatory mechanisms?

A

It conveys high-speed electrical signals along specialized cells called neurons, which regulate other cells.

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4
Q

What is the function of the endocrine system in regulatory mechanisms?

A

It secretes hormones that coordinate slower but longer-acting responses.

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5
Q

What processes does the endocrine system regulate?

A
  • Reproduction
  • development
  • energy metabolism
  • growth
  • behavior
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6
Q

How does the nervous system transmit signals?

A

It uses neurons to transmit high-speed electrical impulses along axons, enabling rapid communication between body parts.

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7
Q

Why is speed important for the nervous system?

A

Speed is necessary for immediate responses, such as muscle contractions, reflexes, and rapid adjustments to external stimuli.

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8
Q

What happens once the electrical signal reaches its destination? (in neurons)

A

Neurons release neurotransmitters, triggering a rapid and specific response.

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9
Q

How does the endocrine system transmit signals?

A

It uses hormones secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands, which travel to target cells or organs.

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10
Q

Chemical signals secreted into the circulatory system that communicate regulatory messages within the body.

A

Animal hormones

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11
Q

Do hormones affect all cells in the body?

A

Hormones reach all parts of the body, but only target cells are equipped to respond.

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12
Q

Can you give an example of a process regulated by hormones?

A
  • Insect metamorphosis
  • blood sugar regulation (insulin and glucagon)
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13
Q

What are endocrine glands?

A

Glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which are distributed throughout the body and bind to specific hormone receptors.

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14
Q

What are exocrine glands?

A

~ Glands that secrete chemicals into ducts, with effects where the duct empties.
~ A gland that makes substances such as sweat, tears, saliva, milk, and digestive juices, and releases them through a duct or opening to a body surface.
~ secrete substances into a ductal system to an epithelial surface

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15
Q

Glands that secrete chemicals into ducts, with effects where the duct empties, such as sweat glands for evaporative cooling.

A

exocrine glands

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16
Q

Glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which are distributed throughout the body and bind to specific hormone receptors.

A

endocrine glands

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17
Q

What are some examples of exocrine products?

A
  • Mucus
  • perspiration
  • oil
  • wax
  • digestive enzymes
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18
Q

How is human development regulated?

A

By various signaling pathways.

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19
Q

What activates these signaling pathways?

A

Specific chemical signaling molecules

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20
Q

How do hormones and other signaling molecules affect target cells?

A

They bind to target receptors, triggering specific response pathways.

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21
Q

Where do chemical signals bind in target cells?

A

To receptor proteins on the target cells.

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22
Q

Signaling pathway: It regulates cell fate and direct cell-to-cell communication.

A

Notch signaling pathway

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23
Q

Signaling pathway: Tissue patterning and organ development.

A

Hedgehog signaling pathway

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24
Q

Signaling pathway: It regulates gene expression and cell proliferation.

A

Canonical Wnt signaling pathway

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25
Q

Signaling pathway: It governs cell movement and polarity.

A

Non-canonical Wnt signaling pathway

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26
Q

Enumerate the iIntracellular communication (signaling) with their subtypes:

A

a) Endocrine Signaling
1. Neuroendocrine Signaling

b) Paracrine Signaling
1. Autocrine Signaling
2. Synaptic Signaling

c) Direct Signaling
1. juxtacrine
2. gap junctions
3. plasmodesmata

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27
Q

What is endocrine signaling?

A

A type of signaling where hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel to distant target cells. Relatively slow

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28
Q

A type of signaling where hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel to distant target cells. Relatively slow

A

Endocrine signaling

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29
Q

What is neuroendocrine signaling?

distance of travel

A

A type of signaling where neurohormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel to distant target cells and trigger responses

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30
Q

A type of signaling where neurohormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel to distant target cells and trigger responses

A

neuroendocrine signaling

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31
Q

What is paracrine signaling?

A

Signaling where cells release chemical signals that affect nearby target cells.
- secreted molecules diffuse locally and trigger a response in neighboring cells. Quick response.

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32
Q

Signaling where cells release chemical signals that affect nearby target cells.
- secreted molecules diffuse locally and trigger a response in neighboring cells. Quick response.

A

Paracrine signaling

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33
Q

What is autocrine signaling?

A

A form of paracrine signaling where the signaling cell also responds to its own signals.
- secreted molecules diffuse locally and trigger a response in the cells that secrete them

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34
Q

A form of paracrine signaling where the signaling cell also responds to its signals.
- secreted molecules diffuse locally and trigger a response in the cells that secrete them

A

Autocrine signaling

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35
Q

What is synaptic signaling?

A

A type of signaling where neurons release neurotransmitters into synapses to communicate with adjacent cells.

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36
Q

A type of signaling where neurons release neurotransmitters into synapses to communicate with adjacent cells.

A

Synaptic signaling

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37
Q

What is direct signaling?

A

Signaling where cells communicate directly through physical contact, such as via gap junctions or surface receptors.

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38
Q

Signaling where cells communicate directly through physical contact, such as via gap junctions or surface receptors.

A

Direct signaling

39
Q

What are some types of secreted chemical signals/signaling molecules? (5)

A
  • Local regulators
  • Neurotransmitters
  • Neurohormones
  • Pheromones
  • Hormones
40
Q

What are local regulators?

A

Chemical signals that travel over short distances by diffusion and help regulate functions such as blood pressure, nervous system activity, and reproduction.

41
Q

Chemical signals that travel over short distances by diffusion and help regulate functions such as blood pressure, nervous system activity, and reproduction.

A

Local regulators

42
Q

What are the two types of local regulators?

A

Paracrine signals: Act on cells near the secreting cell.
Autocrine signals: Act on the secreting cell itself.

43
Q

What are growth factors?

A

Proteins and polypeptides that stimulate cell proliferation.

44
Q

Proteins and polypeptides that stimulate cell proliferation.

A

Growth factors

45
Q

What are cytokines?

A

Molecules that play a role in immune responses.

46
Q

Molecules that play a role in immune responses.

A

Cytokines

47
Q

What is the role of nitric oxide (NO) as a signaling molecule?

A
  • Acts as a neurotransmitter when secreted by neurons.
  • Kills bacteria and cancer cells when secreted by white blood cells (WBCs).
  • Dilates the walls of blood vessels when secreted by endothelial cells.
48
Q
  • Acts as a neurotransmitter when secreted by neurons.
  • Kills bacteria and cancer cells when secreted by white blood cells (WBCs).
  • Dilates the walls of blood vessels when secreted by endothelial cells.
A

nitric oxide (NO)

49
Q

What are prostaglandins (PGs)?

A

Modified fatty acids that:
- Stimulate uterine contractions during childbirth when secreted by the placenta.
- Promote fever and inflammation, and intensify the sensation of pain.
- Regulate the aggregation of platelets, an early step in blood clot formation.

50
Q

Modified fatty acids that:
- Stimulate uterine contractions during childbirth when secreted by the placenta.
- Promote fever and inflammation, and intensify the sensation of pain.
- Regulate the aggregation of platelets, an early step in blood clot formation.

A

Prostaglandins (PGs)

51
Q

What role does nitric oxide (NO) play in the mechanism of erection?

A

NO is released in the corpus cavernosum during sexual stimulation, leading to increased blood flow and erection.

52
Q

How does Sildenafil (Viagra) enhance the effect of nitric oxide?

A

It inhibits phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5), which is responsible for degrading cGMP in the corpus cavernosum, thereby prolonging the effect of NO.

~ Guanosine 3’,5’-cyclic monophosphate (cyclic GMP or cGMP) is a second messenger molecule that modulates various downstream effects

53
Q

What are neurotransmitters? How do neurotransmitters act on target cells? What roles do neurotransmitters play in the body?

A
  • Chemical signals secreted by neurons at synapses.
  • They diffuse a very short distance and bind to receptors on target cells.
  • They are involved in sensation, memory, cognition, and movement.
54
Q
  • Chemical signals secreted by neurons at synapses.
  • They diffuse a very short distance and bind to receptors on target cells.
  • They are involved in sensation, memory, cognition, and movement.
A

neurotransmitters

55
Q

What is the function of Acetylcholine (ACh)?

A

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction.

56
Q

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction.

A

Acetylcholine (ACh)

57
Q

What are neurohormones? How do neurohormones enter the bloodstream?

A
  • Chemical signals secreted by neurosecretory cells.
  • They diffuse from nerve cell endings into the bloodstream.
58
Q
  • Chemical signals secreted by neurosecretory cells.
  • They diffuse from nerve cell endings into the bloodstream.
A

Neurohormones

59
Q

What is the function of ADH (vasopressin)/antidiuretic hormone)?

A

~ It increases water permeability of the kidney’s collecting ducts and causes vasoconstriction–this effect helps increase blood pressure.
~ helps the kidneys control the amount of water and salt in the body.

60
Q

It increases water permeability of the kidney’s collecting ducts and causes vasoconstriction.

A

ADH (vasopressin)/antidiuretic hormone)

61
Q

the narrowing (constriction) of blood vessels by small muscles in their walls.

A

vasoconstriction

62
Q

What are pheromones?

A

Chemical signals released from the body to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

63
Q

Chemical signals released from the body to communicate with other individuals of the same species.

A

Pheromones

64
Q

What are some functions of pheromones? (4)

A
  • Marking trails leading to food
  • Defining territories
  • Warning of predators
  • Attracting potential mates
65
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemicals that transfer information and instructions between cells in animals and plants.

66
Q

Chemicals that transfer information and instructions between cells in animals and plants.

A

Hormones

67
Q

What roles do hormones play in the body?

A
  • Regulate growth and development
  • Control the function of various tissues
  • Support reproductive functions
  • Regulate metabolism
68
Q

How would you describe the action of hormones?

A

Hormones are slow-acting but long-lasting.

69
Q

Why might the same hormone have different effects on target cells?

A
  • Different receptors for the hormone
  • Different signal transduction pathways
  • Different proteins for carrying out the response
70
Q

Can a hormone have different effects in different species?

A

Yes

71
Q

What are the three major classes of hormones in vertebrates?

A
  • Polypeptides: Proteins and peptides
  • Amines: Derived from amino acids
  • Steroid hormones
72
Q

Which classes of hormones are water-soluble?

A

Polypeptides and amines (some are lipid-soluble)

73
Q

Which classes of hormones are lipid-soluble?

Give 3 examples of this class of hormone

A

Steroid hormones and other largely non-polar hormones.

Examples: cortisol, testosterone, progesterone

74
Q

Give three (3) examples of autocrine regulators

A

1) Interleukin (cytokines) - regulation of immune system
2) Neurotrophins - regeneration of peripheral nerves (can be a paracrine regulator)
3) Prostaglandins - inflammatory responses and as mediators of pain

75
Q

Give three (3) examples of paracrine regulators

A

1) Nitric Oxide (NO) - dilation of blood vessels; neural messenger; antibacterial agent
2) Platelet-Derived Growth Factor (PDGF) - cell division within blood vessels
3) Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) - cell division in wound healing

76
Q

How are water-soluble hormones secreted and transported?

A

They are secreted by exocytosis, travel freely in the bloodstream, and bind to cell-surface receptors–in the plasma membranes of the target cells.

77
Q

They are secreted by exocytosis, travel freely in the bloodstream, and bind to cell-surface receptors–in the plasma membranes of the target cells.

A

water-soluble hormones

78
Q

What role does epinephrine play in the body’s response to short-term stress (“flight-or-flight” response)? Where does epinephrine bind in target cells? What happens after epinephrine binds to its receptors?

A
  • Also known as adrenaline
  • both a neurotransmitter and a hormone, but it acts mainly as a hormone.
  • A water-soluble hormone that mediates multiple effects to help the body respond to short-term stress.
  • It binds to receptors on the plasma membrane of liver cells.
  • Then, it triggers the release of messenger molecules that activate enzymes, resulting in the release of glucose into the bloodstream.
79
Q

A water-soluble hormone that mediates multiple effects to help the body respond to short-term stress. It binds to receptors on the plasma membrane of liver cells. Then, it triggers the release of messenger molecules that activate enzymes, resulting in the release of glucose into the bloodstream.

A

epinephrine (adrenaline)

80
Q

How do lipid-soluble hormones travel in the bloodstream and enter target cells?

A
  • bound to transport proteins and diffuse through the cell membrane of target cells (due to their ability to pass through the lipid bilayer)
81
Q

What is the initial step when a lipid-soluble hormone reaches its target cell?

A

The hormone diffuses through the plasma membrane and binds to a receptor inside the cell, either in the cytoplasm or nucleus.

82
Q

Pathway for Lipid-Soluble Hormones: What happens after a steroid hormone binds to its cytosolic receptor? How does this affect the gene expression?

A
  • A hormone-receptor complex forms, which then moves into the nucleus.
  • The receptor part of the complex acts as a transcriptional regulator of specific target genes.
83
Q

What is the first key event in hormone signaling? Where there’s detection of a signal in the environment.

A

Reception

84
Q

Key events in hormone signaling: Reception

Definition

A

detection of a signal in the environment.

85
Q

A key event in hormone signaling that activates a series of proteins inside the cell.

A

Signal transduction

86
Q

Key events in hormone signaling: Signal transduction

A

activates a series of proteins inside the cell.

87
Q

Key event in hormone signaling: A single hormone molecule activates multiple intracellular signaling molecules, resulting in a significant enhancement of the cellular response.

A

Amplification

88
Q

Key events in hormone signaling: Amplification

A

A single hormone molecule activates multiple intracellular signaling molecules, resulting in a significant enhancement of the cellular response.

89
Q

What is the final key event in hormone signaling that is the change in behavior that occurs inside the cell.

A

Response

90
Q

Key events in hormone signaling: Response

A

change in behavior that occurs inside the cell.

91
Q

refers to the duration of time required to decrease the concentration of a circulating hormone by half

A

half-life of a hormone

92
Q

clearance of hormones from the plasma include (4)

A

a) metabolic destruction
b) binding with the tissues
c) excretion by the liver into the bile
d) excretion by the kidneys into the urine

93
Q

two (2) factors influencing the hormone concentrations in the blood

A

1) rate of hormone secretion into the blood
2) rate of removal of the hormone from the blood (metabolic clearance rate)

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