1.2 Principles of Physiology

Question 1

What questions does physiology as an integrating science seek to answer about a system?

Answer 1

how a system evolved and what survival advantages this feature provided.

Question 2

What is the relationship between ontogeny and evolution in the context of physiology?

Answer 2

Ontogeny reflects evolution, showing how developmental processes mirror evolutionary history.

In the context of physiology, the organs and systems that develop in an organism follow patterns that have been shaped by millions of years of evolution. The way these structures develop in an embryo can give clues to their evolutionary origins, showing how current physiological traits have been adapted and refined over time.

Question 3

What does it mean to say that physiology is an integrative science?

Answer 3

It means that physiology brings together everything known about an animal’s function to create a comprehensive picture of how the animal operates in its environment.

Question 4

study the structure and function of various parts of animals and plants, and how these parts work together to allow organisms to perform normal behaviors and respond to their environment.

Answer 4

Physiologist

Question 5

What do physiologists study?

Answer 5

Physiologists study the structure and function of various parts of animals and plants, and how these parts work together to allow organisms to perform normal behaviors and respond to their environment.

Question 6

What is the purpose of designing experiments in physiology?

Answer 6

Experiments are designed to learn about the control and regulation of processes within groups of cells and how the combined activities of these cell groups affect the function of the organism.

Question 7

learn about the control and regulation of processes within groups of cells and how the combined activities of these cell groups affect the function of the animal.

Answer 7

design experiments

Question 8

How do physiologists contribute to understanding an organism’s function?

Answer 8

By studying how different parts work together and designing experiments, physiologists gain insights into how organisms perform their normal behaviors and respond to their environment.

Question 9

Why is diversity considered a hallmark of physiology?

Answer 9

Diversity is a hallmark of physiology because meeting the demands of survival has led to numerous evolutionary variations on the basic theme of life.

Question 10

What do physiological processes obey?

Answer 10

physical and chemical laws.

Question 11

How are physiological processes regulated?

Answer 11

They are regulated to maintain internal conditions and to trigger an appropriate response.

Question 12

What contributes to the physiological state of an animal?

Answer 12

The physiological state of an animal is part of its phenotype, which arises from the interaction between its genetic make-up (genotype) and the environment.

Question 13

What does Comparative Physiology study?

Answer 13

Comparative Physiology compares species to discern physiological and environmental patterns.

Question 14

A subdiscipline of physiology that compares species to discern physiological and environmental patterns.

Answer 14

Comparative Physiology

Question 15

What is the focus of Environmental Physiology?

Answer 15

Environmental Physiology examines organisms in the context of the environments they inhabit, focusing on evolutionary adaptations.

Question 16

A subdiscipline of physiology that examines organisms in the context of the environments they inhabit, focusing on evolutionary adaptations.

Answer 16

Environmental Physiology

Question 17

What techniques are used in Evolutionary Physiology?

Answer 17

Evolutionary Physiology uses techniques of evolutionary biology and systematics to understand the evolution of organisms from a physiological viewpoint, focusing on physiological markers rather than anatomical markers.

Question 18

A subdiscipline of physiology that uses techniques of evolutionary biology and systematics to understand the evolution of organisms from a physiological viewpoint, focusing on physiological markers rather than anatomical markers.

Answer 18

Evolutionary Physiology

Question 19

What does Developmental Physiology explore?

Answer 19

Developmental Physiology explores how physiological processes unfold during the development of an organism from embryo through larva or fetus to adulthood.

Question 20

A subdiscipline of physiology that explores how physiological processes unfold during the development of an organism from embryo through larva or fetus to adulthood.

Answer 20

Developmental Physiology

Question 21

What is the focus of Cell Physiology?

Answer 21

Cell Physiology provides vital information on the physiology of cells themselves, which can be used to understand the physiological responses of tissues, organs, and organ systems.

Question 22

A subdiscipline of physiology that provides vital information on the physiology of cells themselves, which can be used to understand the physiological responses of tissues, organs, and organ systems.

Answer 22

Cell Physiology

Question 23

What are the subdisciplines of physiology (5)?

Answer 23

• Comparative Physiology
• Environmental Physiology
• Evolutionary Physiology
• Developmental Physiology
• Cell Physiology

Question 24

What are the 3 central themes in Physiology?

Answer 24

1. Structure/Function Relationships
2. Adaptation, Acclimatization, and Acclimation
3. Homeostasis

Question 25

Explain the Structure/Function Relationships as a central theme in physiology

Answer 25

• Knowledge of a structure provides insight into what it does and how it works.
• Knowing the function of a structure provides insight into its construction.

Question 26

Give an example of how the structure-function relationship is evident in bird wings.

Answer 26

The aerodynamic efficiency of a bird’s wing is an example; a honeycombed internal structure produces light but strong bones, flight muscles are controlled by neurons, and ample mitochondria provide the energy for flight.

Question 27

Give an example of the structure-function relationship are evident in carnivores and ruminant herbivores.

Answer 27

the anatomical features of these animals are directly related to their dietary needs and feeding behaviors. The ruminant herbivores’ complex stomach and digestive processes reflect their need to efficiently break down and absorb nutrients from plant material. In contrast, the carnivorous animals’ streamlined digestive system and specialized teeth reflect their need to process meat quickly and effectively.

Question 28

What is adaptation in the context of physiology?

Answer 28

Adaptation is evolution through natural selection leading to an organism whose physiology, anatomy, and behavior are suited to its environment. It is generally irreversible.

Question 29

Evolution through natural selection leading to an organism whose physiology, anatomy, and behavior are suited to its environment. It is generally irreversible.

Answer 29

Adaptation

Question 30

What makes a physiological process adaptive?

Answer 30

if it is present at high frequency in the population because it results in a higher probability of survival and reproduction than alternative processes.

Question 31

How are physiological and anatomical adaptations passed on?

Answer 31

They are genetically based, passed on from generation to generation (DNA), and shaped and maintained by natural selection.

Question 32

What is acclimatization?

Answer 32

Acclimatization is a physiological, biochemical, or anatomical change within an individual that results from chronic exposure to new, naturally occurring environmental conditions in its native habitat.

Question 33

A physiological, biochemical, or anatomical change within an individual that results from chronic exposure to new, naturally occurring environmental conditions in its native habitat.

Answer 33

Acclimatization

Question 34

What is acclimation?

Answer 34

Acclimation refers to the same physiological changes as acclimatization but induced experimentally in a laboratory or by an investigator, such as placing an animal in a hypobaric chamber.
Flashcard 7:

Question 35

Refers to the same physiological changes as acclimatization but induced experimentally in a laboratory or by an investigator, such as placing an animal in a hypobaric chamber.

Answer 35

Acclimation

Question 36

both acclimatization and acclimation are

Answer 36

Reversible

Question 37

What is the concept of “milieu intérieur” introduced by Claude Bernard?

Answer 37

refers to the internal environment of an organism, emphasizing that its constancy is crucial for free life.

Question 38

What did Claude Bernard mean by “Constancy of the internal environment is the condition of free life”?

Answer 38

He meant that the ability of animals to survive in stressful and varying environments depends on their ability to maintain a stable internal environment.

Question 39

What did Walter B. Cannon extend the notion of internal consistency to?

Answer 39

organization and function of cells, tissues, and organs.

Question 40

When did Walter B. Cannon introduce the concept of homeostasis, and what recognition did he receive for it?

Answer 40

in 1929 and was awarded the Nobel Prize for it.

Question 41

How did the evolution of homeostasis contribute to the survival of animals in different environments?

Answer 41

The evolution of homeostasis allowed animals to adapt to and thrive in a wide range of environments, from stable to highly variable and extreme conditions. By developing physiological systems that maintain internal stability, animals could move beyond environments that were initially physiologically friendly and colonize new, potentially challenging habitats. This adaptability has been key to their survival and diversification across the planet.

Question 42

What is the role of insulin and glucagon in blood glucose regulation?

Answer 42

Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic hormones that help maintain glucose homeostasis.

Question 43

Where are insulin and glucagon produced in the pancreas?

Answer 43

Insulin and glucagon are produced by clusters of endocrine cells called islets of Langerhans, with alpha cells producing glucagon and beta cells producing insulin.

Question 44

What is hypoinsulinism and what condition is associated with it?

Answer 44

Hypoinsulinism is a condition associated with diabetes mellitus, characterized by insufficient insulin production or function.

Question 45

A condition associated with diabetes mellitus, characterized by insufficient insulin production or function.

Answer 45

Hypoinsulinism

Question 46

Symptoms include excessive urination and excessive thirst. Complications include high blood sugar levels, sugar excreted in the urine, and if severe, the substitution of fat for glucose as a major fuel source, leading to life-threatening acidic metabolites and a dangerous lowering of blood pH.

Answer 46

Hypoinsulinism: diabetes mellitus

Question 47

What are some symptoms and complications of diabetes mellitus?

Answer 47

symptopms: excessive urination and excessive thirst.
complications: high blood sugar levels, sugar excreted in the urine, and if severe, the substitution of fat for glucose as a major fuel source, leading to life-threatening acidic metabolites and a dangerous lowering of blood pH.

Question 48

What is Type I diabetes mellitus, and how is it treated?

Answer 48

Type I diabetes mellitus is an autoimmune disorder that usually appears in childhood and is treated with insulin injections.

Question 49

What is Type II diabetes mellitus, and what causes it?

Answer 49

Type II diabetes mellitus, usually occurring after age 40 and increasing with age, is due to target cells having decreased responsiveness to insulin and accounts for over 90% of diabetes cases.

Question 50

What is acromegaly, and what causes it?

Answer 50

Acromegaly is a condition caused by the overproduction of growth hormone (GH), usually due to a benign pituitary tumor, leading to abnormal growth in bones and tissues.

Question 51

a condition caused by the overproduction of growth hormone (GH), usually due to a benign pituitary tumor, leading to abnormal growth in bones and tissues.

Answer 51

acromegaly

Question 52

How is GH normally regulated in the body?

Answer 52

GH secretion is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism involving the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. High GH levels cause the hypothalamus to reduce growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and increase somatostatin, lowering GH production.

Question 53

How does the feedback loop get disrupted in acromegaly?

Answer 53

In acromegaly, the feedback loop is disrupted because the pituitary tumor continuously produces GH, overriding the body’s normal regulatory mechanisms.

Question 54

What are euryhaline animals, and what is their key adaptation?

Answer 54

Euryhaline animals can survive large fluctuations in external osmolarity, allowing them to live in environments with varying salinity levels.

Question 55

animals that can survive large fluctuations in external osmolarity, allowing them to live in environments with varying salinity levels.

Answer 55

Euryhaline animals

Question 56

What adaptation allows some aquatic invertebrates to survive in temporary waters?

Answer 56

anhydrobiosis - allows some aquatic invertebrates to lose almost all their body water and survive in a dormant state.

Question 57

An adaptation that allows some aquatic invertebrates to survive in temporary waters. Allows to lose almost all their body water and survive in a dormant state.

Answer 57

Anhydrobiosis

Question 58

What is an example of an organism that uses anhydrobiosis?

Answer 58

tardigrade is an example of an organism that can undergo anhydrobiosis, surviving extreme dehydration by entering a dormant state.

Question 59

In which type of environment are animals that undergo anhydrobiosis typically found?

Answer 59

temporary ponds or other environments where water availability is inconsistent.

Question 60

What role does feedback play in regulatory processes?

Answer 60

Feedback is essential for maintaining homeostasis in cells and multicellular organisms by regulating controlled variables through the return of information to a controller.

Question 61

What is feedback in the context of a control system?

Answer 61

Feedback is the return of information to a controller that regulates a controlled variable within the system.

Question 62

(pH regulation in duodenum) What triggers the feedback loop that regulates pH in the duodenum?

Answer 62

The arrival of acidic chyme from the stomach into the duodenum, which lowers the pH, triggers the feedback loop.

Question 63

(pH regulation in duodenum) Which specialized cells detect the low pH in the duodenum?

Answer 63

S cells in the lining of the duodenum detect the low pH.

Question 64

(pH regulation in duodenum) What hormone is released by S cells in response to low pH in the duodenum?

Answer 64

S cells release the hormone secretin in response to the low pH.

Question 65

(pH regulation in duodenum) What is the response of the pancreas when secretin binds to its receptors?

Answer 65

The pancreas releases bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) into the duodenum.

Question 66

(pH regulation in duodenum) What is the role of bicarbonate ions in the feedback loop?

Answer 66

Bicarbonate neutralizes the acidic chyme, raising the pH in the duodenum.

Question 67

What initiates the positive feedback mechanism in blood clotting, and how does it progress?

Answer 67

A break or tear in a blood vessel wall initiates the mechanism. Platelets adhere to the site, release chemicals, and attract more platelets, amplifying the clotting process.

Question 68

When does the blood clotting process conclude, and how does it exemplify positive feedback?

Answer 68

The clotting process continues until the break is sealed by a newly formed clot. It exemplifies positive feedback because the response (clotting) enhances the original stimulus (vessel damage), accelerating the process.

Question 69

Childbirth feedback mechanisms: How does labor begin, and what role does oxytocin play?

Answer 69

Labor begins with the fetus pressing against the cervix, causing it to stretch. This stretching is detected by nerve receptors, which signal the brain to release oxytocin. Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions, which push the baby further into the birth canal.

Question 70

Childbirth feedback mechanisms: How does the positive feedback loop continue during labor?

Answer 70

As contractions occur, the baby’s head pushes more against the cervix, causing further stretching. This increased stretching leads to more oxytocin release, intensifying contractions. This cycle of contraction, cervical stretching, and oxytocin release continues until childbirth is complete.

Question 71

Breastfeeding feedback mechanisms: How does the release of oxytocin facilitate milk ejection during breastfeeding?

Answer 71

During breastfeeding, the baby’s sucking stimulates sensory receptors in the nipple, sending signals to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus then signals the posterior pituitary gland to release oxytocin, which causes the milk ducts to contract and eject milk for the baby to drink.

Question 72

Breastfeeding feedback mechanisms: What role does the positive feedback loop play in milk ejection?

Answer 72

The baby’s continued sucking stimulates more oxytocin release, leading to further milk ejection. This positive feedback loop ensures that as the baby suckles more, more oxytocin is released, enhancing the milk ejection process.

Question 73

Conformity and Regulation: What is the primary characteristic of conformers in response to environmental changes?

Answer 73

Conformers experience internal body changes that directly parallel external conditions, meaning they cannot maintain homeostasis and their internal environment changes with external conditions.

Question 74

Experience internal body changes that directly parallel external conditions, meaning they cannot maintain homeostasis and their internal environment changes with external conditions.

Answer 74

Conformers

Question 75

Give examples of conformers

Answer 75

Examples include osmoconformers like sharks and starfish, and oxyconformers like annelid worms.

Question 76

Conformity and Regulation: What distinguishes regulators from conformers in managing their internal environment?

Answer 76

Regulators use biochemical, physiological, and behavioral mechanisms to maintain homeostasis and regulate their internal environment over a broad range of external changes. Unlike conformers, regulators can actively maintain stable internal conditions despite external fluctuations.

Question 77

use biochemical, physiological, and behavioral mechanisms to maintain homeostasis and regulate their internal environment over a broad range of external changes.

Answer 77

Regulators

Question 78

Conformity and Regulation: What is the function of osmoregulators, and how do they maintain homeostasis?

Answer 78

Osmoregulators maintain ion concentrations in their body fluids above or below environmental levels, depending on the external conditions. For example, they regulate their internal ion concentrations when placed in dilute water or in more concentrated environments to ensure stable internal conditions.

Question 79

maintain ion concentrations in their body fluids above or below environmental levels, depending on the external conditions. For example, they regulate their internal ion concentrations when placed in dilute water or in more concentrated environments to ensure stable internal conditions.

Answer 79

Osmoregulators

Question 80

Conformity: How do freshwater and marine fish conformers manage their internal conditions?

Answer 80

Freshwater fish conformers actively absorb salts and excrete excess water to handle low salinity. Marine fish conformers drink seawater and excrete excess salts to manage high salinity, allowing their internal conditions to match external conditions.

Question 81

Regulation: How do freshwater and marine fish regulators maintain internal stability?

Answer 81

Freshwater fish regulators prevent excessive water gain and maintain salt levels to adapt to low salinity. Marine fish regulators manage salt and water balance to cope with the high salinity of their environment, maintaining internal stability despite external changes.

Question 82

based on the controlled movement of solutes between internal fluids and the external environment. This regulation ensures the balance of solute concentrations and water content within the organism, maintaining homeostasis.

Answer 82

Osmoregulation

Question 83

How do seagulls manage salt and water balance as osmoregulatory regulators in marine environments?

Answer 83

Seagulls consume seawater and use specialized salt glands near their eyes to excrete excess salt from their bloodstream, which is expelled through their nostrils as a concentrated solution. They also produce concentrated urine to conserve water, allowing them to maintain internal water and salt balance in high salinity environments.