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AQA A-level Physical Education > 2.2: Principles And Theories Of Learning And Performance > Flashcards

2.2: Principles And Theories Of Learning And Performance Flashcards

1
Q

What are the stages of learning?

A
  • cognitive
  • associative
  • autonomous
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2
Q

What is the cognitive stage?

A
  • the first stage of learning used by a novice. Understanding and sub-routines are explored by trial and error.
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3
Q

Cognitive stage:

A
  • motor programmes are not fully developed.
  • the learner is trying to understand the demands of the task (thinking and working out)
  • the coach uses demonstrations, guidance, and use of key words as cues and the performer tries to copy.
  • learner needs to give all their attention to the performance of the skill.
  • learner’s unable to pay attention to outside stimulus. Clear, limited, simple extrinsic feedback after performance.
  • as they begin to attempt the skill the learner may make many gross errors.
  • movements are often slow and uncoordinated.
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4
Q

What is the associative stage?

A
  • the second stage of learning as motor programmes are developed and performance is smooth.
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5
Q

Associative stage:

A
  • normally longer than cognitive and the performer becomes more successful and makes less gross errors. Move from competent beginner - an accomplished performer.
  • stage of rapid improvement - skill becomes smoother, more accurate, better timed and more efficient.- performer begins to make use of intrinsic feedback - compares performance to elite performers.
  • performer practices the skill under a wider variety of situations, e.g. adding a defender.
  • period of consolidation of correct or nearly correct movement responses, e.g. a gymnast on the beam.
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6
Q

What is the autonomous stage?

A
  • the final stage of learning used by an expert when movement is detailed and specific.
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7
Q

Autonomous stage:

A
  • skill improvement continues but at a less rapid pace.
  • actions are fluent, efficient, and autonomously undertaken.
  • performer displays high level of accuracy and efficiency.
  • performer can concentrate on the finer details of the task as basis of skill is performed without thinking.
  • motor programmes fully developed.
  • performer can pay less attention to performance of skill - it has become habitual.
  • performer can analyse their own performance and adjust their actions.
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8
Q

Feedback definition:

A
  • information to aid error correction.
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9
Q

What is positive feedback?

A
  • encouragement. Tells a player what is going well and offers motivation to maintain effort.
  • entails information about what was good.
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10
Q

What is negative feedback?

A
  • error correction
  • received after an unsuccessful performance and can be internal or external
  • aims to identify what is going wring so errors can be corrected and bad habits eliminated.
  • as players gain more experience, negative feedback can be appreciated.
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11
Q

Intrinsic feedback defintion:

A
  • from within.

- also known as kinaesthetic feedback and is linked to knowledge of performance.

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12
Q

Extrinsic feedback definition:

A
  • from an outside source.
  • received from outside through hearing and vision. Will give an overview of what the performer needs to improve on and which aspects which they need to maintain.W
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13
Q

What is knowledge of results?

A
  • concerns the outcome
  • gives an indication of whether or not the skill has been successful
  • can be intrinsic/extrinsic
  • successful outcomes need to be maintained and unsuccessful - need to be eliminated thus forms an early basis of improvement
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14
Q

What is knowledge of performance?

A
  • about technique
  • receiving information about the movement pattern rather than the outcome
  • can be internal, so the performer feels how close it was to the perfect model
  • external feedback - correcting minor details
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15
Q

Feedback - cognitive, associative, autonomous

A
  • cognitive: extrinsic, KoR, positive
  • associative: extrinsic-extrinsic as they progress, KoP
  • autonomous: intrinsic, KoP, mainly negative
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16
Q

Learning plateau definition:

A
  • a period during performance when there are no signs of improvement
  • the performer does not seem to be getting any better at doing the task
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17
Q

Learning curve definition:

A
  • a visual representation of what happens when a closed skill is performed repeatedly over a period of time
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18
Q

Learning plateau - stage 1:

A
  • rate of leaning is slow
  • performance level is poor
  • cognitive stage of learning
  • working out the sub-routines
  • trail and error learning
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19
Q

Learning plateau - stage 2:

A
  • rapid acceleration in the rate of learning

- performer had begun to master the task and gain some success

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20
Q

Learning plateau - stage 3:

A
  • no improvement in the rate of learning
  • performance has reached a plateau
  • performance maintains the same level
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21
Q

Learning plateau - stage 4:

A
  • towards the end of the fast performance may deteriorate

- this may be due to fatigue

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22
Q

What is drive reduction?

A
  • the drop in performance is called drive reduction
  • the initial drive to succeed has been lost
  • the challenge or mastering the task has been overcome
  • a new challenge or extension is needed to maintain motivation
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23
Q

Why do plateaus occur?

A
  • lack of motivation
  • boredom
  • coaching
  • limit of ability
  • targets are too low
  • fatigue
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24
Q

How to overcome a plateau?

A
  • extend the task to challenge the performer
  • find a new coach to raise perform cane levels
  • more praise and motivation
  • rest to avoir fatigue
  • more variety so boredom is avoided
  • get some feedback to help improve performances and motivation
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25
Q

Cause and solution - overcoming a plateau:

A
  • lack of motivation: rewards/reinforcement
  • fatigue: rest
  • poor coaching: change coach
  • boredom: different practice
  • targets too low: set new challenges/goals
  • limit of ability: explain the plateau concept
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26
Q

What is guidance?

A
  • used by a coach to enhance learning
  • offer assistance to the performer
  • mainly used by beginners, but even experts will benefit from technical advice
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27
Q

What are the different types of guidance?

A
  • visual
  • verbal
  • mechanical
  • manual
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28
Q

What is visual guidance?

A
  • demonstration
  • allows a performer to develop a mental picture or what the task should look like
  • mainly for cognitive stage or learning
  • vital the demo is accurate
  • draw the learner’s attention to the key points
  • ensure demo seems attainable (no not overload a novice)
29
Q

What are the advantages of visual guidance?

A
  • highlight specific weaknesses
  • creates a mental image
  • shows the performer what the skill should look like as a result of practice
  • used in conjunction with verbal guidance
30
Q

What are the disadvantages of visual guidance?

A
  • demo must be accurate

- performer may be confused - too much information

31
Q

What is verbal guidance?

A
  • use of speech to describe desired movement
  • often used with visual guidance
  • draws attention to important elements of the movement cueing or triggers
  • description must be clear and precise
  • used by experienced players when technical or detailed advice is given
32
Q

What to consider when using verbal guidance?

A
  • do not overload performer with too much information
  • keep information brief, relaxed and meaningful
  • language should be understandable
33
Q

What is mechanical guidance?

A
  • an artificial aid to help performance
  • is a device to help performance, e.g. harness in trampolining
  • helps at very early stages of learning a whole movement especially in a dangerous situation
  • can be used with diables athletes or those recovering from injury.
  • cognitive learners
34
Q

What are the advantages of mechanical guidance?

A
  • builds confidence
  • eliminates danger
  • gives an early feel for the whole skill
  • can be used with disabled or injured athletes
35
Q

What are the disadvantages of mechanical guidance?

A
  • the performer can become reliant

- performer could lose confidence/motivation

36
Q

What is manual guidance?

A
  • involves physical support, e.g. forehand in tennis, handstand or gymnastics
37
Q

What are the advantages of manual guidance?

A
  • eliminates danger
  • helps to build confidence
  • fear/anxiety or reduced
38
Q

What are the disadvantages of manual guidance?

A
  • can have a detrimental effect if overused - bad habits
  • performer may become reliant on support
  • interferes with the ‘feel’ of the skill
39
Q

What are the theories of learning?

A
  • operant conditioning
  • observational learning
  • social development theory - constructivism
  • insight learning
40
Q

Operant conditioning definition:

A
  • the use of reinforcement to link correct responses to a stimule therefore it is known as a behaviourist theory since it connects the stimulus to the response.
41
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A
  • based on trial and error
  • shapes behaviour
  • manipulates the environment - e.g. varied practice
  • reinforced stations are strengthened
  • incorrect actions can be weakened
42
Q

Stimulus - response (S-R) bond:

A
  • operant conditioning works by strengthening the link between the stimule and the response
43
Q

Satisfier definition:

A
  • an action that promotes a pleasant feeling so that responses are repeated.
44
Q

Annoyer definition:

A
  • an action that creates unease to promote the avoidance of incorrect responses.
45
Q

Operant conditioning - sporting example:

A
  • badminton
  • stimulus: shuttlecock high in the air mid court
  • response: smash shot
46
Q

Positive reinforcement definition:

A
  • a pleasant stimulus after the correct response, e.g. certificates
47
Q

Negative reinforcement definition:

A
  • taking away an unpleasant stimulus after the correct response, e.g. shouting
48
Q

Punishment definition:

A
  • stimulus to prevent incorrect actions occurring

- e.g. red and yellow cards, fines

49
Q

What is observational learning?

A
  • theory suggests that acceptable and unacceptable behaviour can be learned by watching and copying other people. E.g. sporting equipment/clothing on athletes
50
Q

Bandura’s ARMM:

A
  • attention
  • retention
  • motor production
  • motivation
51
Q

Attention:

A
  • making the demo attractive to the performer
  • make it clear why you’re leaning the skill
  • make the model stand out
  • the demonstration should always be accurate and correct
  • e.g. passing - more possession, potential to win the game
52
Q

Retention:

A
  • remembering the demo and be able to recall it
  • break info into chunks and repeat it
  • practice as soon as possible after the demo whilst the information is still fresh
53
Q

Motor production:

A
  • having the mental and physical ability to do the task

- e.g. lay-up with junior school children

54
Q

Motivation:

A
  • having the drive to do the task

- motivate by giving praise or rewards to create the drive to learn

55
Q

When are model demos more likely to be copied?

A
  • performed by a player of similar ability
  • they are reinforced
  • they are visually powerful
  • they are consistent
  • they are relevant
56
Q

Attention - learner and coach:

A
  • learner: must focus/concentrate on the model

- coach: can highlight key areas of the skill

57
Q

Retention - learner and coach:

A
  • learner: must remember the image

- coach: should give a clear, correct image so that it can be remembered

58
Q

Motor production - learner and coach:

A
  • learner: must have the necessary physical and mental ability and skill to replicate the demo
  • coach: should make sure the performer is physically and mentally capably ready to perform the skill
59
Q

Motivation - learner and coach:

A
  • learner must have the determination to learn

- coach: can reward on praise the performer to create the drive to learn

60
Q

What is social development theory?

A
  • ‘learning to associate with others’ - build upon knowledge
  • interaction with others can produce a vital role in learning
  • in sport - learn from coaches, teachers or anyone classed as a MKO
61
Q

What is inter-psychological learning?

A
  • during development, the skills are learned from the coach through a process called inter-psychological learning - when the learner uses the MKO to get advice, feedback and tactical knowledge
  • the learner will then construct actions based on what they have learned externally
62
Q

What is intra-psychological learning?

A
  • once external advice has been absorbed learning can then take place (from within) where they will use cognitive aspects of skill acquisition to internally analyse, think about and construct actions based on what they have learned externally
63
Q

Constructivism:

A
  • to build on what you know
  • working with others helps to develop skills, you can learn from the actions of more experienced others and add them to your skill set.
64
Q

Zone of proximal development:

A
  • the next stage if learning needed to improve the skill
  • example: what can I do - what can I do with help - what can I not do yet
    hockey dribbling - Indian dribbling - Indian dribble around an opponent
65
Q

What is insight learning?

A
  • understand the whole problem - greater understanding of what is required as a whole.
  • uses existing knowledge to form an idea of how to deal with problematic sporting situations because they may have an idea from their general sporting knowledge which they can put into practice. For example- field events, ie. long/high jump.
  • by using whole learning, the performer gains a greater understanding of the skill and develops kinaesthetic if the whole skill (self-satisfaction)
  • performers use memory of insight of similar situations to help grassy the task and use previous experience to help with the current task
66
Q

What are the advantages of insight learning?

A
  • creates problem solvers
  • develops independent learners
  • increases motivation
67
Q

Sporting example - insight learning:

A
  • a gymnast working out of their tuck in a tighter position and they will rotate quicker (kinaesthetic feel)
68
Q

What are the advantages of learning a new skill?

A
  • gives a specific role
  • develops thinkers
  • promotes understanding
  • gives self-satisfaction and motivation
69
Q

Learning definition:

A
  • a permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice.

AQA A-level Physical Education (15 decks)

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