2025 Anatomy Exam 2 Flashcards

Question

What agglutinogens are present in type AB blood?

Answer 1

Agglutinogen A and agglutinogen B ## Footnote People with type AB blood have no agglutinin in their plasma.

Answer 2

Neither agglutinogen A nor B ## Footnote People with type O blood have both types of agglutinins (anti-A and anti-B) in their plasma.

Answer 3

Rh factor (Rh antigen) ## Footnote People with Rh negative blood do not have the Rh factor.

Answer 4

Clumping of red blood cells occurs ## Footnote This can lead to hemolysis if incompatible blood types are mixed.

Answer 5

50–70 percent Granular Leukocytes ## Footnote Neutrophils are typically the first white blood cells to respond to bacterial infections.

Answer 6

Reduce inflammation and attack foreign substances 2-4% Granular Leukocytes ## Footnote Eosinophils are particularly involved in allergic reactions and parasitic infections.

Answer 7

Histamine and heparin <1% Granular Leukocytes ## Footnote Histamine dilates blood vessels, and heparin prevents abnormal blood clotting.

Answer 8

Phagocytosis and attracting other phagocytic cells 2-8% Agranular Leukocytes ## Footnote Monocytes can differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells.

Answer 9

20–30 percent Agranular Leukocytes ## Footnote Lymphocytes are responsible for specific immunity.

Answer 10

T cells, B cells, NK cells ## Footnote Each type of lymphocyte has a specific role in the immune response.

Answer 11

Hemopoiesis ## Footnote Hemopoiesis begins with hematopoietic stem cells.

Answer 12

Erythrocytes, platelets, basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils, monocytes ## Footnote This process is known as leukopoiesis.

Answer 13

Lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, NK cells ## Footnote This process is known as lymphopoiesis.

Answer 14

Lower than normal number of platelets ## Footnote Thrombocytosis refers to a higher than normal number of platelets.

Answer 15

Involved in blood clotting and forming a platelet plug ## Footnote Platelets release chemicals to initiate the clotting process.

Answer 16

False ## Footnote Type A blood has anti-B antibodies that will react with type B agglutinogens.

Answer 17

O- = all blood types O+ = all blood types that are + ## Footnote Type O does not have any agglutinogens to activate the patient's agglutinins.

Answer 18

Usually a few days ## Footnote White blood cells multiply when the body is compromised.

Answer 19

They multiply and follow chemicals released by body cells ## Footnote This process is known as chemotaxis.

Answer 20

Red bone marrow ## Footnote Hematopoiesis is the process of blood cell formation.

Answer 21

Connective tissue

Answer 22

Stimulates erythropoiesis ## Footnote EPO is produced by the kidneys and liver during hypoxia.

Answer 23

* Proerythroblast * Erythroblast * Reticulocyte * Erythrocyte

Answer 24

* Neutrophils * Eosinophils * Basophils

Answer 25

They are immature erythrocytes released into the bloodstream.

Answer 26

* B cells * T cells * NK cells

Answer 27

* Hematopoietic stem cells * Lymphoid stem cells

Answer 28

Pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit

Answer 29

Blood goes to and from the lungs

Answer 30

Blood goes to the rest of the body and back to the heart

Answer 31

Blood goes to both circuits at the same time

Answer 32

Adventitia, media, intima

Answer 33

vasa vasorum

Answer 34

Tunica intima Inner most Composed of endothelium Internal Elastic Membrane

Answer 35

Tunica media Middle Layer Smooth Muscle Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation External Elastic Membrane

Answer 36

Tunica adventitia Outermost Anchor the blood vessel

Answer 37

Walls of arteries are thicker than veins

Answer 38

Circular shape

Answer 39

One-way valves

Answer 40

Average luminal diameter is about 2 cm, wall thickness is about 2 mm

Answer 41

Being very resilient and containing elastic membranes

Answer 42

About 1.5 cm

Answer 43

Vessel diameter under control of autonomic nervous system

Answer 44

About 4 mm

Answer 45

Smallest arteries, around 30 microns in diameter

Answer 46

Nutrient/waste exchange between blood and tissues

Answer 47

* Continuous Endothelial lining is complete Most Common * Fenestrated Endothelial lining is not complete Have Pores * Sinusoids aka Discontinuous Capillaries Endothelial lining is not Complete Have Pores

Answer 48

An interconnected network of capillaries

Answer 49

Arteries that fuse to supply a specific area

Answer 50

A direct connection between arterioles and venules

Answer 51

Adventitia is the largest layer, contains elastic fibers, and has one-way valves

Answer 52

Skeletal muscles and venous valves

Answer 53

Large Vein Medium Sized Vein Venule Fenestrated Capillary Elastic Artery Muscular Artery Arteriole Continuous Capillary

Answer 54

Changes in thoracic pressure

Answer 55

Skeletal muscles of the legs ## Footnote Skeletal muscles contract and create pressure to move blood upward against gravity.

Answer 56

Aids in the one-way flow of blood ## Footnote Venous valves prevent backflow and ensure blood returns to the heart.

Answer 57

65–70 percent ## Footnote Veins are known to have a larger capacity than arteries.

Answer 58

Capacitance vessels ## Footnote Veins can expand significantly to accommodate varying blood volumes.

Answer 59

Shifts blood toward the arterial side of circulation ## Footnote This mechanism helps regulate blood distribution in the body.

Answer 60

Blood pressure is lower in the pulmonary circuit ## Footnote This difference affects the structure of the vessel walls.

Answer 61

Right ventricle → pulmonary valve → pulmonary trunk → pulmonary arteries → lungs ## Footnote Blood drops off carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen in the lungs.

Answer 62

Via the pulmonary veins ## Footnote This blood enters the left atrium of the heart.

Answer 63

Systemic circulation ## Footnote This side pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.

Answer 64

* Brachiocephalic trunk * Left common carotid artery * Left subclavian artery ## Footnote These branches supply blood to the arms and head.

Answer 65

* Internal carotids * External carotids ## Footnote These arteries supply blood to the brain and face, respectively.

Answer 66

Contains baroreceptors and chemoreceptors ## Footnote The carotid sinus helps regulate blood pressure and chemistry.

Answer 67

* Internal carotid arteries * Vertebral arteries ## Footnote These arteries ensure adequate blood supply to brain structures.

Answer 68

True ## Footnote This higher pressure is necessary for blood to travel longer distances.

Answer 69

Ophthalmic artery ## Footnote The ophthalmic artery is a branch of the internal carotid artery.

Answer 70

The Aorta ## Footnote The Aorta branches into the carotid and vertebral arteries which supply the brain.

Answer 71

Visceral branches and parietal branches

Answer 72

Bronchial arteries ## Footnote Other visceral branches include pericardial, mediastinal, and esophageal arteries.

Answer 73

False ## Footnote The superior vena cava returns blood from the upper extremities.

Answer 74

Collect blood from body tissues and return it to the heart

Answer 75

Inferior vena cava to the right atrium

Answer 76

They have both deep and superficial veins

Answer 77

Head, neck, chest, shoulders, upper limbs

Answer 78

External jugular vein ## Footnote The external jugular vein receives blood from the temporal and maxillary veins.

Answer 79

* Digital veins * Superficial palmar veins * Palmar venous arches * Cephalic vein * Subclavian vein * Brachiocephalic vein * Superior vena cava

Answer 80

* Plantar veins * Ventral plantar arches * Anterior tibial vein * Posterior tibial vein * Fibular vein * Popliteal vein * Femoral vein * External iliac vein * Common iliac vein * Inferior vena cava

Answer 81

False ## Footnote The fetal lungs are nonfunctional, and all nutritional and respiratory needs are met via the placenta.

Answer 82

* Foramen ovale * Ductus arteriosus

Answer 83

ductus venosus

Answer 84

It contracts and forms the ligamentum arteriosum.

Answer 85

Foramen ovale ## Footnote This eventually forms the fossa ovalis in the adult heart.

Answer 86

Pelvic organs and gluteal region ## Footnote The internal iliac arteries are crucial for supplying blood to various structures in the pelvis.

Answer 87

Oxygen-rich blood ## Footnote Most arteries carry oxygen-rich blood, except for the pulmonary arteries which carry oxygen-poor blood.

Answer 88

Oxygen-poor blood ## Footnote Veins generally return deoxygenated blood to the heart, except for the pulmonary veins which carry oxygen-rich blood.

Answer 89

Smooth muscles of the ductus arteriosus contract ## Footnote This contraction leads to the formation of the ligamentum arteriosum in adults.

Answer 90

Closes due to increased pressure in the left atrium ## Footnote The closure of the foramen ovale forms the fossa ovalis in the adult heart.

Answer 91

True ## Footnote Atherosclerosis primarily refers to the buildup of plaques in the arterial walls.

Answer 92

ligamentum arteriosum ## Footnote This transformation is a key event in the transition from fetal to postnatal circulation.

Answer 93

Lymph Consists of: Interstitial fluid Lymphocytes Macrophages Lymphatic vessels Consists of: Pass through lymphatic tissue and organs Deliver lymph to venous circulation Lymphatic tissues and organs Consists of: Primary lymphatic structures Thymus Red bone marrow Secondary lymphatic structures Tonsils Lymph nodes Axillary, lumbar, pelvic, inguinal Spleen Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue

Answer 94

Produce, maintain, and distribute lymphocytes Maintain normal blood volume and the normal composition of the interstitial fluid Provide an alternative route for the transport of Hormones Nutrients Waste Primary lymphatic structures Cause differentiation of lymphocytes resulting in: T cells, B cells, and NK cells Secondary lymphatic structures Considered to be the “front line” of defense Consist of lymphocytes and more B cells to battle infectious agents

Answer 95

The maintenance of normal blood volume and chemical composition of the interstitial fluid The blood pressure in capillaries is about 35 mm Hg This pressure forces solutes and waste out of the plasma into the interstitial fluid area Some interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic system The lymphatic system eventually returns fluid to the venous system

Answer 96

Consists of: Interstitial Fluid Lymphocytes Macrophages Fluid is similar to plasma, but lack proteins Found only in the CLOSED Lymphatic vessels Transparent, colorless or slightly yellow, watery Lymphocytes increase in number after the passage of the lymph through lymphoid tissue (lymph glands)

Answer 97

Lymphocytes are the primary cells of the lymphatic system They respond to: Invading bacteria and viruses Abnormal body cells such as cancer cells Foreign proteins such as toxins released by some bacteria Travel throughout body Exit bloodstream to enter interstitial spaces Re-enter bloodstream via lymphatic vessels

Answer 98

T Cells Originate in the bone marrow but travel to the thymus gland and become activated (immunocompetent) by thymosin Mature T cells leave thymus and migrate to red bone marrow, spleen, and other lymphatic tissues Different types of T cells Cytotoxic T cells Attack foreign cells and viruses Helper T cells Stimulate both T and B cells Enhance antibody production Regulatory T cells Moderate immune response Memory T cells Become activated if the same antigen appears in the body at a later date

Answer 99

B Cells Originate and become immunocompetent in the bone marrow Mature B cells enter bloodstream and migrate to peripheral tissues Can differentiate to form: Plasma cells Produce antibodies that react with antigens Antibodies are also called immunoglobulins Memory B cells Become activated if the same antigen appears at a later date

Answer 100

NK Cells Attack foreign cells Attack normal cells that are infected with viruses Attack cancer cells

Answer 101

There are two response mechanisms Cell-mediated immunity T cells directly attach to the pathogen Antibody-mediated immunity Pathogen is attacked by antibodies produced by B cells Antigens attacked by macrophages Presented to T Cells to differentiate We are Immunocompetence = ability to recognize antigens (non-self) Lymphocytes produced in Bone Marrow and Thymus and peripheral lymph tissue

Answer 102

Comparisons to vascular capillaries Lymphatic capillaries are larger in diameter Lymphatic capillaries have thinner walls Lymphatic capillaries have an irregular outline Lymphatic capillaries have anchoring filaments that connect to the surrounding connective tissue to keep the capillaries open Lymphatic capillaries have greater permeability Have 1-way valves in them to accept interstitial fluid, preventing back flow

Answer 103

Called Lymphatic Ducts Comparing larger lymphatics to veins Lymphatic vessels have thinner walls Lymphatic vessels have larger lumens Lymphatic vessels do not have easily identifiable tunics Larger lymphatic vessels have valves just like most veins have Pressure in the lymphatic vessels is lower than the pressure in the veins Valves prevent the backflow of lymph Skeletal muscles contract to help propel lymph Inhalation decreases thoracic pressure, which helps to move lymph toward the venous system (subclavians) Empty into the Thoric Duct and Right Lymphatic Duct

Answer 104

Lacteals - Lymphatic Capillaries Found in GI Tract Pick up dietary lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins in addition to interstitial fluid This fluid is milky-colored and called Chyle Interrupted at intervals by constrictions, which give them a knotted appearance Found nearly throughout the whole body

Answer 105

Internal Coat Slightly Elastic Elongated endothelial cells Middle Coat Smooth muscle Fine Elastic Fibers External Coat Connective tissue Some smooth muscle fibers Protective

Answer 106

Pressure is lower than that of veins Intraluminal valves prevent the back flow of lymph Skeletal muscle contraction helps movement Inhalation decreases thoracic pressure, helping move lymph toward venous system (subclavian) The flow of the subclavian veins draws lymph into it, exercise helps with lymphatic return

Answer 107

Two Kinds: Superficial Lymphatics Found in Subcutaneous layer Mucous lining of the digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive tracts Serous lining of the various cavities Deep Lymphatics Collect from the skeletal muscle and tissue of the lymphatic trunks 5 Major Lumbar Intestinal Subclavian Bronchomediastinal Jugular

Answer 108

Lymphatic Capillaries Lymphatic Vessels Lymphatic Nodes Collecting Ducts (5 major) jugular, subclavian, bronchomediastinal, lumbar, and intestinal... intercostal branches too Thoracic Duct and Right Lymphatic Duct Subclavian Vein/Bloodstream Thoracic is left subclavian Right Lymphatic is right subclavian

Answer 109

Begins as a saclike structure called the cisterna chyli Drains into left subclavian Drains lymph inferior to the diaphragm Drains lymph from left arm, left side of torso, left side of neck and left side of head About 38 to 45 cm and extends from the second lumbar vertebra to the root of the neck Begins in the abdomen by a triangular dilation (cisterna chyli), which is on front of the body of the 2nd lumbar vertebra, to the right side and behind the aorta, by the right cruss of the diaphragm

Answer 110

Does not have a swelling like Thoracic Duct (cisterna chyli) Drains into right subclavian Drains lymph from: right arm, right side of the torso, right side of neck, right side of the head Much Shorter in length From the root of the neck to the ending in the right subclavian vein (runs along the scalenus anterior muscle)

Answer 111

Lymphatic tissue characteristics Tissue dominated by lymphocytes Lymphocytes are loosely aggregated within connective tissue Lymphatic nodule characteristics Lymphocytes aggregated within a supporting framework of reticular fibers Nodules have a germinal center, which contains the lymphocytes Both lymphatic tissue and lymphatic nodules are diffuse lymphatic tissues with capsule

Answer 112

Types of nodules Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) Lymphatic nodules associated with the digestive tract Tonsils There are five sets of tonsils One pharyngeal tonsil Two palatine tonsils Two lingual tonsils Aggregated lymphoid nodules (Peyer’s patches and appendix) Lymphatic nodules associated with the small intestine

Answer 113

Separated from surrounding tissue by a fibrous capsule Lymphatic organs include: Lymph nodes Thymus gland Spleen

Answer 114

1–25 mm in diameter Surrounded by fibrous connective tissue capsule Situated along the lymphatic system and lacteal vessels Widely distributed throughout the body, but concentrated in regions where body is more susceptible to injury or invasion Cervical Region Axillary Breasts Abdominal Inguinal (one superficial and one deep) Think of them as biological filters dispersed along the path of the lymphatic system Only organs that filter lymph Reticular tissue cells (like network of cotton fibers) Respond to antigens

Answer 115

Bean Shaped Lymph nodes consist of: Hilum, where blood vessels and nerves enter and exit Capsule with afferent vessels Subcapsular space Many dendritic cells Outer cortex Includes germinal center Contains B cells Paracortex Contains T cells Medulla Contains B cells and macrophages Medullary cords Hilum with efferent vessels, blood vessels, and nerves Efferent Lymph Vessel = emerges from the gland, commence from the lymph sinus of the medullary portion Afferent Lymph Vessel = enters the organ at different parts of the periphery

Answer 116

Refines T Cells... if a faulty T Cell fighting our tissue, gets rid of it Lies posterior to the manubrium of the sternum Reaches its greatest size relative to body size by age 1 or 2 Reaches maximum size by puberty Diminishes in size after puberty Consists of two thymic lobes (left and right) Consists of numerous lobules (about 2 mm in width) separated by septa Consists of a cortex and a medulla The cortex consists of: Stem cells that differentiate to form T cells Mature T cells migrate to the medulla The medulla consists of: T cells that remain inactive until they enter circulation Thymic corpuscles (function is unknown) Epithelial reticular cells are scattered throughout the thymus Produce thymic hormones such as thymosin

Answer 117

Largest lymphatic organ (12 cm in length) Located on the left edge of the stomach Attached to the stomach via the gastrosplenic ligament Surfaces of the Spleen Consists of the following areas or regions Diaphragmatic surface Visceral surface The visceral surface contains the hilum Exhibits indentations/impressions of organs Gastric area Renal area Blood supply enters via splenic artery, venous blood drains to splenic vein The spleen consists of: Capsule Red pulp Contains large quantities of red blood cells and macrophages Macrophages identify and engulf damaged or infected red blood cells White pulp Forms lymphoid nodules Can respond to antigens or pathogens in the blood Functions of Spleen Initiates a immune response when antigens found in blood (white pulp) Serves a reservoir for RBCs and Platelets (red pulp) Phagocytizes old, defective RBCs and Platelets (red pulp) and bacteria

Answer 118

As we age: T cells become less responsive to antigens Number of helper T cells declines B cells then become less responsive as well Age increases susceptibility to infections and cancer Thymus gland diminishes in size

Answer 119

The digestive system consists of: The digestive tract Accessory organs of digestion Digestive tract Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Accessory organs of the digestive tract Teeth Tongue Salivary glands Pancreas Liver (largest organ in the body) Gallbladder

Answer 120

Functions of the digestive system Ingestion Mechanical processing Digestion Secretion Absorption Excretion Compaction Defecation

Answer 121

There are four major layers of the digestive tract: The mucosa The submucosa The muscular layer The serosa (the peritoneum, what covers small intestine is called mesentery)

Answer 122

The inner lining of the digestive tract This is a mucous membrane The mucosal epithelium is either a stratified or simple epithelium Oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus are lined with nonkeratinized stratified squamous cells (resist stress and abrasion) Stomach, small intestine, and large intestine are lined with simple columnar cells (for secretion and absorption) The mucosa of the small intestine makes up circular folds, or plicae circulares Plicae circulares increase the surface area for increased absorption Lamina propria Contains blood vessels, nerves, smooth muscle, and lymphatic vessels Muscularis mucosae Narrow band of smooth muscle at the border of the mucosa Mucosa cells have microvilli arranged in/on villi within the structure of circular fold

Answer 123

Deep to the mucosa Areolar connective tissue Large blood vessels and lymphatics are in this layer Submucosal neural plexuses innervate the mucosa Consists of sensory neurons Consists of parasympathetic ganglia Consists of sympathetic postganglionic fibers

Answer 124

Also called the muscularis externa Deep to the the submucosa Dominated by smooth muscle fibers In some locations forms sphincters or valves Innervated by myenteric neural plexus This is a network of parasympathetic ganglia and sympathetic postganglionic fibers

Answer 125

Outermost layer of the digestive system Only within the peritoneal cavity Not found in pharynx, esophagus, and rectum These structures covered by fibrous adventitia

Answer 126

The serosa (visceral peritoneum) is continuous with the parietal peritoneum Serous fluid lubricates the serosal surfaces The abdominal organs lie within the peritoneal cavity or the abdominal cavity Intraperitoneal organs stomach, spleen, liver, and parts of the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, transverse colon, and sigmoid colon Retroperitoneal organs Suprarenal (adrenal) gland Aorta and IVC Duodenum Pancreas Ureter Colon Kidney Esophagus Rectum *SAD PUCKER Secondarily retroperitoneal organs

Answer 127

Organs that lie within the peritoneal cavity Organs are surrounded completely by the visceral peritoneum Examples: Stomach Liver Ileum

Answer 128

Organs are covered by the visceral peritoneum on their anterior surface These organs lie outside the visceral peritoneum Examples: Kidneys Ureters Abdominal aorta Pancreas

Answer 129

These organs form as intraperitoneal but soon become retroperitoneal The change occurs during embryonic development as the associated visceral peritoneum fuses with the opposing parietal peritoneum Examples are: Pancreas Duodenum

Answer 130

Mesenteries These are fused double sheets of peritoneal membrane Function: Stabilize the position of organs Provide route for the passage of blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics to and from the digestive tract All of the small intestine but the duodenum is suspended in a sheet of mesentery called the mesentery proper Large intestine suspended by three mesenteries: Mesocolon Mesentery attached to the large intestine Transverse mesocolon Mesentery attached to the transverse colon Sigmoid mesocolon Mesentery attached to the sigmoid colon Fusion fascia The ascending colon, descending colon, and rectum are attached to the posterior abdominal wall via this fused mesentery Lesser omentum Lies between the stomach and the liver Greater omentum Extends from the stomach and covers the rest of the abdominal organs on the anterior surface Contains thick layer of adipose Functions as an energy reserve and as insulation

Answer 131

Retroperitoneal organs after taking away peritoneum

Answer 132

Structures within the oral cavity Tongue Uvula (close off path to nasopharynx so food doesn't come out of nose) Palatal arches Salivary glands Teeth

Answer 133

Lined by oral mucosa Consists of nonkeratinized stratified squamous cells The oral mucosa is continuous with: Lining of the cheeks Lining of the lips Lining of the gums, or gingivae The space between cheeks, lips, and gums is called the oral vestibule The roof of the oral cavity consists of: Hard palate This is the palatine process of the maxilla and the palatine bone Separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity Soft palate Separates the oral cavity from the nasopharynx The soft palate makes up the palatoglossal arch, palatopharyngeal arch, and uvula The floor of the oral cavity consists of: The tongue The oral cavity also houses the palatine tonsils Lymphatic tissue These lie between the palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal arches They are lateral to the uvula The space between the oral cavity and the pharynx is called the fauces

Answer 134

Has several functions Mechanical digestion Manipulation of food Sensory analysis Secretion of enzymes to aid in fat digestion Movement for the formulation of words Can be divided into different areas Body Anterior portion of the tongue Root Posterior portion of the tongue Dorsum of the tongue Superior portion of the tongue Contains lingual papillae Papillae contain the taste buds

Answer 135

There are three pairs of salivary glands Parotid Sublingual Submandibular Saliva consists of water, ions, buffers, and salivary amylase All three pairs of glands produce salivary amylase Partially digests carbohydrates Regulation of the Salivary Glands Secretions are controlled by the autonomic nervous system Parasympathetic Accelerates salivary secretions Sympathetic Unclear role May reduce salivary secretions and change consistency of saliva

Answer 136

Parotid salivary glands The largest of the three salivary glands Located on the lateral side of the face in the area of the ramus of the mandible Parotid duct lies on the masseter muscle Saliva drains to the mouth cavity via the parotid duct Sublingual salivary glands Covered by the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth Consist of numerous sublingual ducts that open along either side of the lingual frenulum Submandibular salivary glands Located on the floor of the mouth, deep into the mandible, inferior to the mylohyoid line Submandibular ducts open on either side of the frenulum, posterior to the teeth

Answer 137

Serves as a common passageway for food, liquid, and air Pharyngeal muscles involved in swallowing: Pharyngeal constrictors, push bolus towards esophagus (KNOW) Palatopharyngeus Stylopharyngeus Palatal muscles

Answer 138

This is a hollow muscular tube that extends from the pharynx region to the stomach It is 25 cm long and 2 cm in diameter Located posterior to the trachea Enters the peritoneal cavity by passing through the esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm (T10) Innervated by the vagus nerve (N X) from the esophageal plexus Contains upper and lower esophageal sphincters Top 1/3 you have straited muscle Middle 1/3 is a mix Lower 1/3 is smooth The esophageal wall is made of: Mucosa Contains stratified, nonkeratinized squamous epithelium Submucosa Both mucosa and submucosa have large folds Contains submucosal glands that produce mucus Muscularis mucosae very thin or absent Muscularis externa is mixed skeletal and smooth muscle Both are under involuntary control The esophagus does not have a serosa layer Has fibrous adventitia (KNOW THIS)

Answer 139

The stomach performs three major functions: Temporary storage of ingested food Mechanical digestion of ingested food Chemical digestion of ingested food The end result is the production of chyme

Answer 140

The stomach is intraperitoneal and is located: In the left hypochondriac, epigastric, and a portion of the umbilical and left lumbar regions The stomach consists of: Cardia Fundus Body Pyloric part Lesser curvature Greater curvature Omenta (greater and lesser)

Answer 141

Gastric folds (gastric rugae) Relaxed stomach: mucosa forms numerous muscular ridges Folds permit expansion of the stomach A stretched stomach exhibits less prominent folds More as you get toward the Pyloric Part Smooth muscle layers Circular muscles Longitudinal muscles Oblique muscles

Answer 142

The mesenteries associated with the stomach are called the greater and lesser omentum Greater omentum Extends from the greater curvature of the stomach and drapes across the surface of the small intestine Lesser omentum Extending from the lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver is the hepatogastric ligament Extending from the pylorus/duodenum region to the liver is the hepatoduodenal ligament

Answer 143

There are three branches from the celiac trunk that supply the stomach Left gastric artery Supplies blood to the lesser curvature and cardia (KNOW THESE) Splenic artery Supplies blood to the fundus Branches to form the left gastro-epiploic artery, which supplies the greater curvature Common hepatic artery Branches to form the right gastric, right gastro-epiploic, and gastroduodenal artery to supply the greater and lesser curvatures KNOW Superior Mesenteric Artery Inferior Mesenteric Artery

Answer 144

Lined with simple columnar epithelium Structures within the lining of the stomach Gastric pits lead to gastric glands Gastric pits and glands contain gastric secretory cells Mucous surface cells Mucous neck cells Parietal cells Chief cells * In the stomach, parietal cells are responsible for secreting hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor, while chief cells secrete pepsinogen, the inactive form of the digestive enzyme pepsin; essentially, parietal cells create the acidic environment needed for digestion, while chief cells produce the digestive enzyme itself Enteroendocrine cells

Answer 145

Regions of the small intestine Approximately 6 meters (20 feet) in length and 2.5–4 cm (1–1.6 inches) in diameter Consists of: Duodenum 25 cm (10 inches) long; receives digestive enzymes from the pancreas, bile from the liver and gallbladder Jejunum 2.5 m (8 feet) long; most of the digestion and absorption occurs in the jejunum Ileum 3.5 m (12 feet) long

Answer 146

The lining contains: Circular folds (plicae circulares) Each plica consists of numerous intestinal villi The apical surface of the epithelial mucosa has tiny microvilli The plicae circulares, villi, and microvilli function to increase surface area for digestion and absorption The lamina propria within each villus has capillaries Villi absorb the digested nutrients from the lumen of the small intestine into the capillaries KNOW THIS PICTURE

Answer 147

The Lamina Propria Each villus also contains a lacteal Located within the lamina propria of the villus Lacteals absorb material that cannot be absorbed by the capillaries Examples would be large lipid-protein complexes

Answer 148

Regional Specializations The Duodenum Contains duodenal papilla Houses duodenal ampulla Bile duct from liver/gallbladder and pancreatic duct from pancreas combine to form ampulla Bile from the liver and gallbladder Buffers and digestive enzymes from the pancreas Smooth muscle of the hepatopancreatic sphincter controls release of secretions

Answer 149

Regional Specializations The Jejunum and Ileum Jejunum Has prominent plicae and villi Most nutrient absorption occurs here Ileum Contains prominent lymphoid centers called aggregated lymphoid nodules (Peyer’s patches) Plicae and villi reduced

Answer 150

Features of the large intestine Approximately 1.5 m (5 feet) in length Approximately 7.5 cm (3 inches) in diameter Consists of three regions Cecum Colon Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon Sigmoid colon Rectum Functions of the large intestine Reabsorption of water Results in compaction of waste (forms feces) Absorption of vitamins produced by the housed bacteria Storage of fecal material prior to defecation

Answer 151

The cecum is intraperitoneal The ileum connects to the medial surface of the cecum An ileocecal valve regulates the movement of material from the ileum to the cecum The vermiform appendix attaches to the cecum Appendix is lymphatic tissue The meso-appendix (mesentery) helps anchor the appendix to the ileum and the cecum

Answer 152

The regions of the colon are: Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon Sigmoid colon Waste material leaves the ileum and enters the cecum Waste material goes “up” the ascending colon Around the right colic flexure (hepatic flexure) “Across” the transverse colon Around the left colic flexure (splenic flexure) “Down” the descending colon To the sigmoid colon Into the rectum The wall of the colon has pouches called haustra that allow for expansion Muscular layer is reduced to longitudinal bands of smooth muscle called teniae coli that aid in peristalsis and define the haustra The serosa of the large intestine has numerous sacs of fat attached to and extending from the intestine called omental appendices

Answer 153

Temporarily stores waste matter (feces) The last portion of the rectum is the anal canal The anal canal contains anal columns The anal canal ends at the anus Internal anal sphincter is smooth muscle and involuntary External anal sphincter is skeletal muscle and voluntary

Answer 154

Accessory Organ Largest Visceral Organ The liver has many functions, including: Metabolic regulation Hematological regulation Bile production Anatomy of the Liver Four lobes Right lobe Left lobe Caudate lobe Quadrate lobe Anterior surface Posterior surface Falciform ligament Marks the boundary between the left and right lobes The inferior portion of the falciform ligament becomes thick and round and is called the round ligament The round ligament used to be the fetal umbilical vein The falciform ligament spreads on the surface of the liver attaching to the inferior side of the diaphragm This spreading ligament is called the coronary ligament

Answer 155

Blood Supply to the Liver Two blood vessels supply the liver Hepatic artery proper Hepatic portal vein Blood returns to inferior vena cava via hepatic veins KNOW HOW ALL THE VEINS DUMP INTO HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN

Answer 156

Portal Triad NEED TO YOUTUBE THIS MORE Sinusoids consist of: Sinusoid capillaries that lead to the central vein Stellate macrophages (Kupffer cells): phagocytic cells of the liver

Answer 157

Accessory Organ The gallbladder is divided into three regions Fundus Body Neck The cystic duct leads from the neck of the gallbladder to the common hepatic duct KNOW THESE DUCTS MORE THAN WHAT IS ON SLIDE

Answer 158

The main endocrine organs are: Pituitary gland Hypothalamus Thyroid gland Thymus gland Important in kids, important for maturation of T-Cells Suprarenal glands Aka Adrenal Glands Pineal gland (melatonin) Parathyroid glands Pancreas Reproductive glands

Answer 159

The pituitary gland is called the hypophysis Attached to the hypothalamus via the infundibulum Sits in the hypophyseal fossa of the sella turcica Consists of two lobes Adenohypophysis: anterior lobe releases nine peptide hormones Rathke’s pouch – roof of developing mouth Neurohypophysis: posterior lobe releases two peptide hormones produced in the hypothalamus

Answer 160

The anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) receives portal blood. The posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) receives arterial blood. Portal system is a capillary between two venules **** YOUTUBE THIS MORE

Answer 161

The Hypophyseal Portal System Within the infundibulum is a plexus of capillaries Capillaries are fenestrated Regulatory hormones leave the hypothalamus and pass through the portal vessels to the adenohypophysis

Answer 162

Lies in the lower part of the neck at the level of the 5th cervical to the 1st thoracic vertebrae. It is formed of 2 lobes connected by an isthmus. Each lobe pyramidal in shape with an apex, a base & 3 surfaces (medial, lateral & posterior). Each lobe is about 5 x 3 x 2 cm (length x width x thickness). The apex is at the level of oblique line of thyroid cartilage of the larynx. The base is at the level of the 4th or 5th tracheal ring.

Answer 163

Autonomic innervation via a. Cervical portion of sympathetic trunk b. Parasympathetic fibers arise from Vagus X

Answer 164

Colloid is where the hormones are produced... which is within the follicular cells Space between follicles is called medulla, within in there is C-cells (parafollicular cells) produce calcitonin

Answer 165

The pancreas is highly vascularized It has fenestrated capillaries Has NO capsule Head is supplied by the pancreaticoduodenal arteries Tail is supplied by the pancreatic artery branches from the splenic artery The pancreas is about 20–25 cm long The head connects to the duodenum of the small intestine via the duodenal papilla. Pancreatic duct merges with the common bile duct. The pointed tail extends toward the spleen The pancreas is an exocrine and endocrine organ

Answer 166

Pancreatic islets (islet of Langerhans) are isolated cells within pancreas A Cells - Glucagon B Cells - Insulin D Cells - Somatostatin

Answer 167

Located in epigastric & left hypochondriac regions Dimensions: 1. 5 - 6” length x 2. 1-1/2” width x 3. 1/2 - 1” thick Lies retroperitoneally at ~T-12/L-1 to L-3 Head fills concavity of duodenum Body crosses left kidney Tail reaches hilus of the spleen Related anteriorly to transverse colon Aorta, IVC lie posterior Uncinate process: Lies posterior to SMA and SMV Lies anterior to aorta Neck lies anterior to SMV, with pylorus just above

Answer 168

Know the Celiac Artery and its branches... GOOGLE THIS MORE Hepatic Portal System, Need more GOOGLE THIS MORE

Answer 169

Know the Celiac Artery and its branches... GOOGLE THIS MORE Hepatic Portal System, Need more GOOGLE THIS MORE

Answer 170

Outer Section = Cortex (produce steroids) Inside Section = Medulla

Answer 171

The suprarenal glands (adrenal glands) are located attached to the superior border of the kidneys These glands are highly vascularized Superior suprarenal arteries from the inferior phrenic arteries Middle suprarenal arteries branch directly off of the aorta Inferior suprarenal arteries from the renal arteries

Answer 172

Left Adrenal Gland Left suprarenal vein drains into the left renal vein Right Adrenal Gland Right suprarenal vein drains directly into the superior vena cava

Answer 173

The suprarenal glands are made of two parts Suprarenal medulla – catecholamines Suprarenal cortex The suprarenal cortex is made of three distinct zones Zona glomerulosa - Mineralocorticoids Zona fasciculate - Corticosteroids Zona reticularis – Androgens Main source for women

Answer 174

The reproductive system is designed to perpetuate the species The reproductive system produces, stores, nourishes, and transports gametes The male produces gametes called sperm The female produces gametes called oocytes The joining of a sperm cell and an oocyte is fertilization Fertilization results in the formation of a zygote

Answer 175

Gonads Testes/Ovaries that produce gametes and hormones Reproductive tract Ducts that receive, store, and transport gametes Accessory glands Secrete fluids External genitalia Perineal structures

Answer 176

Principal structures of the male reproductive system are Scrotum Testis Epididymis Ductus deferens Urethra Glands Seminal gland Prostate gland Bulbo-urethral gland Penis

Answer 177

Testes hang inside a pouch of skin called the scrotum, which is on the outside of the body Testicle size 5 cm long 3 cm wide 2.5 cm thick 10–15 g Descent of the Testes During development, the testes form inside the abdominal cavity near the kidneys Gubernaculum testis holds testes in place As body growth proceeds, gubernaculum testis doesn’t elongate Gubernaculum testis pulls testes inferiorly Testes descend toward the scrotum by passing through the inguinal canals The ductus deferens, blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves remain bundled to the testes in the spermatic cords Descent of the Testes Testicle development requires a temperature of approximately 98.6ºF Hence the development of the testicles within the abdominal cavity Sperm development requires a temperature of approximately 96.6ºF Hence the development of sperm cells outside the abdominal cavity

Answer 178

The Spermatic Cords Consist of: Ductus deferens Blood vessels Deferential artery Testicular artery Pampiniform plexus of the testicular vein Nerves Ilioinguinal nerve Genitofemoral nerve Pass through narrow inguinal canals that connect scrotal chambers to peritoneal cavity Know Cremaster and Dartos Muscle

Answer 179

The Scrotum and the Position of the Testes Divided into two chambers (scrotal cavities) Chambers are separated by the raphe of the scrotum Can be seen as thickened tissue that extends from the anus, across the scrotum, and along the anterior surface of the penis Tunica vaginalis lines each cavity A serous membrane that lines the cavity and reduces friction between opposing outer and inner serous layers Muscles of the scrotum Dartos muscle Superficial smooth muscle Contraction causes the wrinkling of the scrotal surface Cremaster muscle Contraction tenses the scrotal sac and pulls it closer to the body The temperature for sperm development is 2ºF cooler than body temperature Therefore, if the temperature is cold outside, the testes move closer to the abdomen to maintain the proper temperature

Answer 180

The scrotum is highly vascularized by the: Internal pudendal arteries A branch from the internal iliac artery External pudendal arteries A branch from the femoral artery Inferior epigastric arteries A branch from the external iliac artery The scrotum supplied with sensory and motor nerves from the: Hypogastric plexus Ilioinguinal nerves Genitofemoral nerves Pudendal nerves

Answer 181

Tunica albuginea A fibrous, connective tissue lining of the testes Extends deep into the testes and forms septa Septa converge toward the mediastinum of the testis Mediastinum supports ducts that move material toward the epididymis Tunica vaginalis Serous tissue that surrounds the tunica albuginea and is continuous with the surrounding tissue of the epididymis Purpose to limit friction during movement

Answer 182

Histology of the Testes The septa testes separate the testes into lobules Each lobule contains tightly coiled seminiferous tubules Each seminiferous tubule is approx. 80 cm long Seminiferous tubules begin to uncoil leading to the straight tubules in the mediastinum area The straight tubules interconnect with each other forming the rete testis within the mediastinum Rete testis connects to the efferent ductules Efferent ductules lead to the epididymis There is a space between the coils of the seminiferous tubules The cells within this space are the interstitial endocrine cells (Leydig cells) Interstitial endocrine cells produce and release testosterone

Answer 183

Spermatogenesis Formation of sperm cells Begins in the outer layer of the seminiferous tubules Spermatogonia Stem cells that will give rise to sperm cells Formed during embryonic development but dormant until puberty Meiosis Cell division that produces haploid gametes

Answer 184

Spermatids mature to form physically mature sperm cells This maturation process is called spermiogenesis During spermiogenesis, the spermatids are embedded in nurse cells (Sertoli cells) Upon maturation, the spermatids (now sperm cells) enter into the lumen of the seminiferous tubules

Answer 185

Each spermatozoon has three areas Head Contains chromosomes Contains acrosome consisting of enzymes Enzyme, hyaluronidase, is necessary for fertilization of the egg Middle piece (with the neck) Contains mitochondria and centrioles Tail Only flagellum found in human body Enables mobility of the sperm cell

Answer 186

Involved in the functional maturation, nourishment, storage, and transport of sperm Consists of: Epididymis Ductus deferens Urethra

Answer 187

The Epididymis Fluid currents in the straight tubules move sperm cells to the epididymis Sperm cells are physically but not functionally mature (can’t move independently yet) The epididymis consists of three parts Head Receives spermatozoa via the efferent ducts Body Coiled tubes pass through the body Tail Tubes begin to uncoil to become a single tube called the ductus deferens

Answer 188

Also called the vas deferens Begins at the tail of the epididymis Ascends into the abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal Curves around the urinary bladder and the ureter then descends back toward and through the prostate gland Before entering the prostate gland, the ductus deferens expands into the ampulla The ampulla joins the excretory duct of the seminal gland to become the ejaculatory duct The ejaculatory duct empties into the prostatic urethra

Answer 189

Divided to form three regions Prostatic urethra Extends from the urinary bladder through the prostate gland Membranous urethra Passes through muscular wall of pelvic cavity Spongy urethra Passes through the penis Sometimes called the penile urethra

Answer 190

There are three glands associated with the male reproductive system Seminal glands (or seminal vesicles) Produce 60 percent of the semen volume Seminal fluid consists of: A high concentration of fructose Prostaglandins Clotting factors Contents empty into the ductus deferens during ejaculation Seminal fluids will enable sperm to become motile Prostate Prostatic fluid secreted into the prostatic urethra Produces 20–30 percent of the semen volume Weakly acidic Secretions contain: Enzymes that prevent sperm coagulation in vagina Seminalplasmin This is an antibiotic believed to prevent UTIs in males Bulbo-urethral glands (or Cowper’s glands) Paired glands located at the base of the penis Produces 5 percent of the semen volume Contents empty into the spongy urethra, immediately distal to body wall (end of membranous urethra) Secretions Consist of thick, sticky, alkaline mucus Neutralize urinary acids that are remaining in the urethra Provide lubrication for the tip of the penis

Answer 191

Semen Each ejaculation releases 2 to 5 ml of semen Ejaculate material consists of: Sperm cells Normal sperm count from 20–100 million per ml Seminal fluid 60 percent from the seminal vesicles 30 percent from the prostate 5 percent from the bulbo-urethral glands 5 percent from the epididymis Enzymes Dissolves vaginal mucus and acts as an antibiotic

Answer 192

Divided into three regions Root Attaches base of penis to the rami of the ischia Body (shaft) Consists of erectile tissue Glans penis The expanded distal end of the penis Surrounds the external urethral orifice Consists of three cylindrical columns of erectile tissue and blood vessels Two posterior corpora cavernosa One anterior corpus spongiosum

Answer 193

Ovaries Uterine tubes (Fallopian tubes) Fimbriae Uterus Cervix Vagina External genitalia Labia minora/majora Breasts The Vaginal Fornix, which there is two, are the little gaps between the vagina and cervix

Answer 194

Several ligaments support the ovaries, uterine tubes, and uterus The broad ligament encloses ovaries, uterine tubes, and uterus Mesosalpinx attaches to uterine tube Mesovarium supports each ovary Broad ligament is continuous with peritoneum and subdivides the pelvic cavity Recto-uterine pouch Vesico-uterine pouch Ovarian, round, suspensory, and uterosacral ligaments also support the ovaries and uterus

Answer 195

Flattened oval measuring: 5 cm long 2.5 cm wide 8 mm thick Stabilized by: Mesovarium Ovarian ligament Suspensory ligament Contains ovarian artery and vein Connect to ovary at ovarian hilum Consist of two stromal layers: Cortex Covered by germinal epithelium of simple cuboidal cells, which surrounds the fibrous tunica albuginea Gamete production occurs in the cortex Medulla

Answer 196

Hollow, muscular tube Approximately 13 cm long Consist of five regions Fimbriae Fingerlike projections that cover the ovary surface Infundibulum Expanded funnel near ovary Inner lining of infundibulum contains cilia Ampulla Isthmus Uterine part Opens into the uterus

Answer 197

Consists of: Ciliated and nonciliated columnar cells Layers of smooth muscle Combination of cilia and smooth muscle peristalsis moves oocyte/zygote Successful fertilization: Occurs 12–24 hours after ovulation Occurs in the distal 2/3 of the uterine tube (ampulla region) Creates a diploid zygote

Answer 198

Provides protection for the embryo Provides nutritional support for the embryo Provides a means to remove waste produced by the embryo Overall size Pear-shaped 7.5 cm long 5 cm diameter 30–40 g Suspensory Ligaments of the Uterus These are in addition to the various regions of the broad ligament Uterosacral ligaments Round ligaments Cardinal ligaments

Answer 199

Gross Anatomy of the Uterus Consists of: Body Fundus Uterine cavity Isthmus Internal os Cervix Cervical canal External os

Answer 200

An elastic, muscular tube Extends from the cervix of the uterus to the external genitalia Vagina is approximately 7.5–9 cm in length Cervix projects from the uterus into the vaginal canal The edges of the cervix form recesses called the vaginal fornix The vagina is separated from the vestibule by an elastic epithelial fold called the hymen Vaginal branches are the primary blood supply of the vagina Serves three major functions Passageway for elimination of menstrual fluids Receives the penis and holds spermatozoa before they enter the uterus Serves as a passageway for the fetus during vaginal birth Contains a normal population of bacteria Bacteria are provided nutrients found in the cervical mucus The bacteria create an acid environment This reduces the growth of many pathogenic organisms This also reduces sperm mobility Buffers found in seminal fluid counteract this acidity

Answer 201

Lined with stratified squamous epithelium When relaxed, this tissue forms rugae Lamina propria is thick and elastic The muscular layer is continuous with the myometrium of the uterus

Answer 202

Vulva Region enclosing external genitalia Vestibule The opening into the vagina surrounded by the labia minora Moistened by greater and lesser vestibular glands Clitoris Contains erectile tissue and is covered by prepuce Labia majora and mons pubis Forms the lateral and superior edges of vestibule

Answer 203

Contain mammary glands Mammary glands produce milk in a process called lactation Mammary glands located within the pectoral fat pads of each breast Each breast has a nipple surrounded by an areola Areola contains large sebaceous glands Remember a superficial and deep layer to breast. Most of the breast is adipose tissue

Answer 204

Mammary glands consist of: Apocrine cells in lobules secrete milk into ducts Lobular ducts combine and form a single lactiferous duct in each lobe Lactiferous ducts expand to form lactiferous sinuses near nipple 15–20 lactiferous sinuses open onto the surface of each nipple Suspensory ligaments support ducts, lobes, and lobules

Answer 205

Vestibule between labia minoria Entrotuces opening to vaginal canal?

Answer 206

Glans penis is part of corpus spongiosum

Answer 207

Inferior Mesenteric Arteries - sigmoid colon Superior Mesenteric Arteries - ?

Answer 208

Esophagus has upper and lower sphincter Lower has no muscle band, acts as sphincter because of diaphragm Upper is a True Spector, cricopharyngeal muscle

Answer 209

Actual Portal Vein is made by splenic and superior mesenteric vein Inferior mesenteric vein Joins Splenic Vein

2025 Anatomy Exam 2 Flashcards

Lectures 5-8: Vascular Anatomy, Blood, Lymphatics, GI, Endocrine, Reproductive