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NSU AA Denver > 2025 Anatomy Exam 2 > Flashcards

2025 Anatomy Exam 2 Flashcards

Lectures (5-8): Vascular Anatomy, Blood, Lymphatics, GI, Endocrine, Reproductive

1
Q

What are the primary substances transported by the cardiovascular system?

A
  • Nutrients
  • Oxygen and carbon dioxide
  • Enzymes and hormones
  • Ions
  • Metabolic wastes
  • Leukocytes
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2
Q

List some functions of the cardiovascular system.

A
  • Stabilization of body temperature
  • Prevention of loss of body fluids
  • Stabilization of pH
  • Electrolyte balance
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3
Q

What are the two main components of blood?

A
  • Plasma
  • Formed elements
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4
Q

Define erythrocytes.

A

Red blood cells that transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.

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5
Q

What is the function of leukocytes?

A

To function in the immune system.

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6
Q

What role do platelets play in the blood?

A

Involved in blood clotting.

Formerly called thrombocytes.

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7
Q

What percentage of plasma is made up of water?

A

92%

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8
Q

What are the major plasma proteins and their percentages?

A
  • Albumins (60%)
  • Globulins (35%)
  • Fibrinogen (4%)
  • Regulatory proteins (< 1%)
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9
Q

What is the primary function of albumins?

A

Contribute to osmotic pressure and transport lipids and steroid hormones.

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10
Q

What is the primary function of globulins?

A

Transport ions, hormones, lipids, and function in immune response.

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11
Q

What is the role of fibrinogen in the blood?

A

Essential component of clotting system; converts to insoluble fibrin.

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12
Q

What is the normal pH range of blood?

A

7.35–7.45

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13
Q

Whole Blood Part

A

Plasma

Packed Cells
Mostly erythrocytes (>99.9%) with fewer leukocytes (<0.1%)

Platelets

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14
Q

What is the hematocrit reading?

A

Percentage of whole blood occupied by formed elements.

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15
Q

What is the average volume of blood in males and females?

A
  • Males: 4–6 liters
  • Females: 4–5 liters
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16
Q

What is the life span of red blood cells (RBCs)?

A

About 120 days.

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17
Q

What is the significance of RBCs lacking a nucleus?

A
  • Allows flexibility in circulation
  • More room for hemoglobin
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18
Q

What is hemoglobin and its primary function?

A

A protein responsible for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide.

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19
Q

What are the major blood types based on surface antigens?

A
  • Agglutinogen A
  • Agglutinogen B
  • Agglutinogen D
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20
Q

People with type A blood have which agglutinogen and agglutinin?

A
  • Agglutinogen A
  • Agglutinin B
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21
Q

Fill in the blank: Blood with clotting proteins removed is called _______.

A

serum

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22
Q

True or False: Carbon dioxide concentration is higher in plasma than in interstitial fluid.

A

False

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23
Q

What type of agglutinogen do people with type A blood have?

A

A agglutinogen

People with type A blood also have anti-B agglutinin in their plasma.

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24
Q

What type of agglutinogen do people with type B blood have?

A

B agglutinogen

People with type B blood also have anti-A agglutinin in their plasma.

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25
Q

What agglutinogens are present in type AB blood?

A

Agglutinogen A and agglutinogen B

People with type AB blood have no agglutinin in their plasma.

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26
Q

What agglutinogens are present in type O blood?

A

Neither agglutinogen A nor B

People with type O blood have both types of agglutinins (anti-A and anti-B) in their plasma.

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27
Q

What antigen do people with Rh positive blood have?

A

Rh factor (Rh antigen)

People with Rh negative blood do not have the Rh factor.

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28
Q

What happens during agglutination?

A

Clumping of red blood cells occurs

This can lead to hemolysis if incompatible blood types are mixed.

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29
Q

What is the normal range of neutrophils in white blood cells?

A

50–70 percent

Granular Leukocytes

Neutrophils are typically the first white blood cells to respond to bacterial infections.

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30
Q

What is the function of eosinophils?

A

Reduce inflammation and attack foreign substances

2-4%

Granular Leukocytes

Eosinophils are particularly involved in allergic reactions and parasitic infections.

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31
Q

What do basophils release?

A

Histamine and heparin

<1%

Granular Leukocytes

Histamine dilates blood vessels, and heparin prevents abnormal blood clotting.

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32
Q

What is the primary function of monocytes?

A

Phagocytosis and attracting other phagocytic cells

2-8%

Agranular Leukocytes

Monocytes can differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells.

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33
Q

What is the normal range of lymphocytes in white blood cells?

A

20–30 percent

Agranular Leukocytes

Lymphocytes are responsible for specific immunity.

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34
Q

What are the three types of lymphocytes?

A

T cells, B cells, NK cells

Each type of lymphocyte has a specific role in the immune response.

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35
Q

What is the process of blood formation called?

A

Hemopoiesis

Hemopoiesis begins with hematopoietic stem cells.

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36
Q

What do myeloid stem cells differentiate into?

A

Erythrocytes, platelets, basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils, monocytes

This process is known as leukopoiesis.

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37
Q

What do lymphatic stem cells differentiate into?

A

Lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, NK cells

This process is known as lymphopoiesis.

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38
Q

What is thrombocytopenia?

A

Lower than normal number of platelets

Thrombocytosis refers to a higher than normal number of platelets.

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39
Q

What is the role of platelets in hemostasis?

A

Involved in blood clotting and forming a platelet plug

Platelets release chemicals to initiate the clotting process.

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40
Q

Blood Donor Matrix

A
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41
Q

True or False: Type A blood can receive type B blood safely.

A

False

Type A blood has anti-B antibodies that will react with type B agglutinogens.

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42
Q

Fill in the blank: Type O (packed cells) donor can donate to type _____ patient.

A

B

Type O does not have any agglutinogens to activate the patient’s agglutinins.

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43
Q

What is the typical lifespan of white blood cells?

A

Usually a few days

White blood cells multiply when the body is compromised.

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44
Q

What is the function of leukocytes in response to infection?

A

They multiply and follow chemicals released by body cells

This process is known as chemotaxis.

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45
Q

What is the primary site of hematopoiesis in adults?

A

Red bone marrow

Hematopoiesis is the process of blood cell formation.

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46
Q

What type of tissue is blood classified as?

A

Connective tissue

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47
Q

What is the role of erythropoietin (EPO)?

A

Stimulates erythropoiesis

EPO is produced by the kidneys and liver during hypoxia.

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48
Q

What are the stages of erythrocyte development?

A
  • Proerythroblast
  • Erythroblast
  • Reticulocyte
  • Erythrocyte
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49
Q

True or False: Yellow marrow can be converted to red marrow under some conditions.

A

True

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50
Q

What are the types of granulocytes?

A
  • Neutrophils
  • Eosinophils
  • Basophils
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51
Q

What is the significance of reticulocytes in erythropoiesis?

A

They are immature erythrocytes released into the bloodstream.

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52
Q

What differentiates into plasma cells?

A

B cells

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53
Q

What types of cells do lymphoid stem cells differentiate into?

A
  • B cells
  • T cells
  • NK cells
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54
Q

What are the two key types of stem cells involved in hemopoiesis?

A
  • Hematopoietic stem cells
  • Lymphoid stem cells
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55
Q

True or False: CSFs are involved in the regulation of blood cell production.

A

True

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56
Q

What are the two groups of blood vessels?

A

Pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit

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57
Q

What does the pulmonary circuit do?

A

Blood goes to and from the lungs

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58
Q

What does the systemic circuit do?

A

Blood goes to the rest of the body and back to the heart

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59
Q

How do blood vessels work during each heartbeat?

A

Blood goes to both circuits at the same time

60
Q

What are the three layers of blood vessel walls?

A

Adventitia, media, intima

61
Q

Walls of Biggest Blood Vessels Have

A

vasa vasorum

62
Q

What is the intima layer also called?

A

Tunica intima

Inner most

Composed of endothelium
Internal Elastic Membrane

63
Q

What is the media layer also called?

A

Tunica media

Middle Layer

Smooth Muscle

Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation
External Elastic Membrane

64
Q

What is the adventitia layer also called?

A

Tunica adventitia

Outermost

Anchor the blood vessel

65
Q

How do the walls of arteries compare to those of veins?

A

Walls of arteries are thicker than veins

66
Q

What shape do arteries maintain when cut?

A

Circular shape

67
Q

What feature helps veins prevent backflow of blood?

A

One-way valves

68
Q

What are the characteristics of large veins?

A

Average luminal diameter is about 2 cm, wall thickness is about 2 mm

69
Q

What are elastic arteries known for?

A

Being very resilient and containing elastic membranes

70
Q

What is the average luminal diameter of elastic arteries?

A

About 1.5 cm

71
Q

What do muscular arteries control?

A

Vessel diameter under control of autonomic nervous system

72
Q

What is the average luminal diameter of muscular arteries?

A

About 4 mm

73
Q

What are arterioles?

A

Smallest arteries, around 30 microns in diameter

74
Q

What is the primary function of capillaries?

A

Nutrient/waste exchange between blood and tissues

75
Q

What are the three types of capillaries?

A
  • Continuous
    Endothelial lining is complete
    Most Common
  • Fenestrated
    Endothelial lining is not complete
    Have Pores
  • Sinusoids
    aka Discontinuous Capillaries
    Endothelial lining is not Complete
    Have Pores
76
Q

What is a capillary bed?

A

An interconnected network of capillaries

77
Q

What are collateral arteries?

A

Arteries that fuse to supply a specific area

78
Q

What is an arteriovenous anastomosis?

A

A direct connection between arterioles and venules

79
Q

What is the structure of medium-sized veins?

A

Adventitia is the largest layer, contains elastic fibers, and has one-way valves

80
Q

What assists blood in veins returning to the heart from the lower extremities?

A

Skeletal muscles and venous valves

81
Q

True or False: Large veins have valves.

A

False

81
Q

Flow of Blood

A

Large Vein
Medium Sized Vein
Venule
Fenestrated Capillary

Elastic Artery
Muscular Artery
Arteriole
Continuous Capillary

82
Q

What aids blood flow through the venae cavae back to the heart?

A

Changes in thoracic pressure

83
Q

What helps propel blood back to the heart from the lower extremities?

A

Skeletal muscles of the legs

Skeletal muscles contract and create pressure to move blood upward against gravity.

84
Q

What is the function of venous valves?

A

Aids in the one-way flow of blood

Venous valves prevent backflow and ensure blood returns to the heart.

85
Q

What percentage of total blood volume do veins contain?

A

65–70 percent

Veins are known to have a larger capacity than arteries.

86
Q

What are veins referred to as due to their capacity?

A

Capacitance vessels

Veins can expand significantly to accommodate varying blood volumes.

87
Q

What is venoconstriction?

A

Shifts blood toward the arterial side of circulation

This mechanism helps regulate blood distribution in the body.

88
Q

What is the primary difference in blood pressure between the pulmonary and systemic circuits?

A

Blood pressure is lower in the pulmonary circuit

This difference affects the structure of the vessel walls.

89
Q

What is the pathway of oxygen-poor blood in the pulmonary circuit?

A

Right ventricle → pulmonary valve → pulmonary trunk → pulmonary arteries → lungs

Blood drops off carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen in the lungs.

90
Q

Where does oxygenated blood return to the heart from the lungs?

A

Via the pulmonary veins

This blood enters the left atrium of the heart.

91
Q

What does the left side of the heart supply?

A

Systemic circulation

This side pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.

92
Q

What are the branches of the aortic arch?

A
  • Brachiocephalic trunk
  • Left common carotid artery
  • Left subclavian artery

These branches supply blood to the arms and head.

93
Q

What do the common carotid arteries divide into?

A
  • Internal carotids
  • External carotids

These arteries supply blood to the brain and face, respectively.

94
Q

What is the function of the carotid sinus?

A

Contains baroreceptors and chemoreceptors

The carotid sinus helps regulate blood pressure and chemistry.

95
Q

What arteries supply the brain?

A
  • Internal carotid arteries
  • Vertebral arteries

These arteries ensure adequate blood supply to brain structures.

96
Q

True or False: Blood pressure in the systemic circuit is higher than in the pulmonary circuit.

A

True

This higher pressure is necessary for blood to travel longer distances.

97
Q

Fill in the blank: The _______ arteries supply blood to the eyes.

A

Ophthalmic artery

The ophthalmic artery is a branch of the internal carotid artery.

98
Q

What is the main artery supplying blood to the brain?

A

The Aorta

The Aorta branches into the carotid and vertebral arteries which supply the brain.

99
Q

What two branches does the thoracic aorta divide into?

A

Visceral branches and parietal branches

100
Q

Name one type of visceral branch of the thoracic aorta.

A

Bronchial arteries

Other visceral branches include pericardial, mediastinal, and esophageal arteries.

101
Q

True or False: The inferior vena cava returns blood from the upper extremities to the heart.

A

False

The superior vena cava returns blood from the upper extremities.

102
Q

What is the main function of systemic veins?

A

Collect blood from body tissues and return it to the heart

103
Q

Where does blood from the lower extremities return to the heart?

A

Inferior vena cava to the right atrium

104
Q

What is unique about venous drainage in the neck and limbs?

A

They have both deep and superficial veins

105
Q

What does the superior vena cava receive blood from?

A

Head, neck, chest, shoulders, upper limbs

106
Q

What vein drains the superficial veins of the head and neck?

A

External jugular vein

The external jugular vein receives blood from the temporal and maxillary veins.

107
Q

List the sequence of veins that blood from the hands returns to the heart.

A
  • Digital veins
  • Superficial palmar veins
  • Palmar venous arches
  • Cephalic vein
  • Subclavian vein
  • Brachiocephalic vein
  • Superior vena cava
108
Q

What sequence of veins returns blood from the feet to the heart?

A
  • Plantar veins
  • Ventral plantar arches
  • Anterior tibial vein
  • Posterior tibial vein
  • Fibular vein
  • Popliteal vein
  • Femoral vein
  • External iliac vein
  • Common iliac vein
  • Inferior vena cava
109
Q

True or False: The fetal cardiovascular system has functional lungs.

A

False

The fetal lungs are nonfunctional, and all nutritional and respiratory needs are met via the placenta.

110
Q

What are the two ‘short circuits’ used in fetal heart circulation to bypass the lungs?

A
  • Foramen ovale
  • Ductus arteriosus
111
Q

Fill in the blank: The _______ is a shunt that allows blood to bypass the fetal liver.

A

ductus venosus

112
Q

What happens to the ductus arteriosus upon birth?

A

It contracts and forms the ligamentum arteriosum.

113
Q

What structure closes due to increased pressure in the left atrium after birth?

A

Foramen ovale

This eventually forms the fossa ovalis in the adult heart.

114
Q

What do the internal iliac arteries supply?

A

Pelvic organs and gluteal region

The internal iliac arteries are crucial for supplying blood to various structures in the pelvis.

115
Q

What type of blood is carried by the arteries in the human body?

A

Oxygen-rich blood

Most arteries carry oxygen-rich blood, except for the pulmonary arteries which carry oxygen-poor blood.

116
Q

What type of blood is carried by the veins in the human body?

A

Oxygen-poor blood

Veins generally return deoxygenated blood to the heart, except for the pulmonary veins which carry oxygen-rich blood.

117
Q

What is the primary change in the cardiovascular system at birth?

A

Smooth muscles of the ductus arteriosus contract

This contraction leads to the formation of the ligamentum arteriosum in adults.

118
Q

What happens to the foramen ovale at birth?

A

Closes due to increased pressure in the left atrium

The closure of the foramen ovale forms the fossa ovalis in the adult heart.

119
Q

True or False: Atherosclerosis affects only the arteries.

A

True

Atherosclerosis primarily refers to the buildup of plaques in the arterial walls.

120
Q

Fill in the blank: The ductus arteriosus becomes the _______ after birth.

A

ligamentum arteriosum

This transformation is a key event in the transition from fetal to postnatal circulation.

121
Q

The lymphatic system consists of

A

Lymph
Consists of:
Interstitial fluid
Lymphocytes
Macrophages

Lymphatic vessels
Consists of:
Pass through lymphatic tissue and organs
Deliver lymph to venous circulation

Lymphatic tissues and organs
Consists of:
Primary lymphatic structures
Thymus
Red bone marrow

Secondary lymphatic structures
Tonsils
Lymph nodes
Axillary, lumbar, pelvic, inguinal
Spleen
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue

122
Q

Functions of Lymphatic System

A

Produce, maintain, and distribute lymphocytes

Maintain normal blood volume and the normal composition of the interstitial fluid

Provide an alternative route for the transport of
Hormones
Nutrients
Waste

Primary lymphatic structures
Cause differentiation of lymphocytes resulting in:
T cells, B cells, and NK cells

Secondary lymphatic structures
Considered to be the “front line” of defense
Consist of lymphocytes and more B cells to battle infectious agents

123
Q

How Lymphatic System Helps Maintain BP

A

The maintenance of normal blood volume and chemical composition of the interstitial fluid
The blood pressure in capillaries is about 35 mm Hg

This pressure forces solutes and waste out of the plasma into the interstitial fluid area
Some interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic system
The lymphatic system eventually returns fluid to the venous system

124
Q

Lymph

A

Consists of:
Interstitial Fluid
Lymphocytes
Macrophages

Fluid is similar to plasma, but lack proteins

Found only in the CLOSED Lymphatic vessels

Transparent, colorless or slightly yellow, watery

Lymphocytes increase in number after the passage of the lymph through lymphoid tissue (lymph glands)

125
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Lymphocytes are the primary cells of the lymphatic system
They respond to:
Invading bacteria and viruses
Abnormal body cells such as cancer cells
Foreign proteins such as toxins released by some bacteria

Travel throughout body
Exit bloodstream to enter interstitial spaces
Re-enter bloodstream via lymphatic vessels

126
Q

Types of Lymphocytes: T Cells

A

T Cells
Originate in the bone marrow but travel to the thymus gland and become activated (immunocompetent) by thymosin

Mature T cells leave thymus and migrate to red bone marrow, spleen, and other lymphatic tissues

Different types of T cells
Cytotoxic T cells
Attack foreign cells and viruses

Helper T cells
Stimulate both T and B cells
Enhance antibody production

Regulatory T cells
Moderate immune response

Memory T cells
Become activated if the same antigen appears in the body at a later date

127
Q

Types of Lymphocytes: B Cells

A

B Cells
Originate and become immunocompetent in the bone marrow

Mature B cells enter bloodstream and migrate to peripheral tissues

Can differentiate to form:
Plasma cells
Produce antibodies that react with antigens
Antibodies are also called immunoglobulins

Memory B cells
Become activated if the same antigen appears at a later date

128
Q

Types of Lymphocytes: NK Cells

A

NK Cells
Attack foreign cells
Attack normal cells that are infected with viruses
Attack cancer cells

129
Q

Immune Response

A

There are two response mechanisms
Cell-mediated immunity
T cells directly attach to the pathogen

Antibody-mediated immunity
Pathogen is attacked by antibodies produced by B cells

Antigens attacked by macrophages
Presented to T Cells to differentiate

We are Immunocompetence = ability to recognize antigens (non-self)

Lymphocytes produced in Bone Marrow and Thymus and peripheral lymph tissue

130
Q

Lymphatic Capillaries

A

Comparisons to vascular capillaries
Lymphatic capillaries are larger in diameter
Lymphatic capillaries have thinner walls
Lymphatic capillaries have an irregular outline
Lymphatic capillaries have anchoring filaments that connect to the surrounding connective tissue to keep the capillaries open
Lymphatic capillaries have greater permeability

Have 1-way valves in them to accept interstitial fluid, preventing back flow

131
Q

Larger Lymphatic Vessels

A

Called Lymphatic Ducts

Comparing larger lymphatics to veins
Lymphatic vessels have thinner walls
Lymphatic vessels have larger lumens
Lymphatic vessels do not have easily identifiable tunics
Larger lymphatic vessels have valves just like most veins have

Pressure in the lymphatic vessels is lower than the pressure in the veins
Valves prevent the backflow of lymph
Skeletal muscles contract to help propel lymph
Inhalation decreases thoracic pressure, which helps to move lymph toward the venous system (subclavians)

Empty into the Thoric Duct and Right Lymphatic Duct

132
Q

Structure of Lymphatic Vessels

A

Lacteals - Lymphatic Capillaries
Found in GI Tract
Pick up dietary lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins in addition to interstitial fluid
This fluid is milky-colored and called Chyle

Interrupted at intervals by constrictions, which give them a knotted appearance

Found nearly throughout the whole body

133
Q

Structure of the Lymphatic Vessel

A

Internal Coat
Slightly Elastic
Elongated endothelial cells

Middle Coat
Smooth muscle
Fine Elastic Fibers

External Coat
Connective tissue
Some smooth muscle fibers
Protective

134
Q

Valves of Lymphatics

A

Pressure is lower than that of veins

Intraluminal valves prevent the back flow of lymph

Skeletal muscle contraction helps movement

Inhalation decreases thoracic pressure, helping move lymph toward venous system (subclavian)

The flow of the subclavian veins draws lymph into it, exercise helps with lymphatic return

135
Q

Major Lymph Collecting Vessels

A

Two Kinds:
Superficial Lymphatics
Found in Subcutaneous layer
Mucous lining of the digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive tracts
Serous lining of the various cavities

Deep Lymphatics
Collect from the skeletal muscle and tissue of the lymphatic trunks
5 Major
Lumbar
Intestinal
Subclavian
Bronchomediastinal
Jugular

136
Q

Flow of Lymph

A

Lymphatic Capillaries
Lymphatic Vessels
Lymphatic Nodes
Collecting Ducts (5 major)
Thoracic Duct and Right Lymphatic Duct
Subclavian Vein/Bloodstream
Thoracic is left subclavian
Right Lymphatic is right subclavian

137
Q

Thoracic Duct

A

Begins as a saclike structure called the cisterna chyli

Drains into left subclavian

Drains lymph inferior to the diaphragm
Drains lymph from left arm, left side of torso, left side of neck and left side of head

About 38 to 45 cm and extends from the second lumbar vertebra to the root of the neck
Begins in the abdomen by a triangular dilation (cisterna chyli), which is on front of the body of the 2nd lumbar vertebra, to the right side and behind the aorta, by the right cruss of the diaphragm

138
Q

Right Lymphatic Duct

A

Does not have a swelling like Thoracic Duct (cisterna chyli)

Drains into right subclavian

Drains lymph from:
right arm, right side of the torso, right side of neck, right side of the head

Much Shorter in length
From the root of the neck to the , ending in the right subclavian vein (runs along the scalenus anterior muscle)

139
Q

Lymphoid Tissue vs Nodules

A

Lymphatic tissue characteristics
Tissue dominated by lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are loosely aggregated within connective tissue

Lymphatic nodule characteristics
Lymphocytes aggregated within a supporting framework of reticular fibers
Nodules have a germinal center, which contains the lymphocytes

Both lymphatic tissue and lymphatic nodules are diffuse lymphatic tissues with capsule

140
Q

Types of Lymph Nodules

A

Types of nodules
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
Lymphatic nodules associated with the digestive tract

Tonsils
There are five sets of tonsils
One pharyngeal tonsil
Two palatine tonsils
Two lingual tonsils

Pharyngeal tonsil

Palatine tonsils

Lingual tonsils

Aggregated lymphoid nodules (Peyer’s patches and appendix)
Lymphatic nodules associated with the small intestine

141
Q

Lymphoid Organs

A

Separated from surrounding tissue by a fibrous capsule

Lymphatic organs include:
Lymph nodes
Thymus gland
Spleen

142
Q

Lymph Nodes

A

1–25 mm in diameter

Surrounded by fibrous connective tissue capsule

Situated along the lymphatic system and lacteal vessels

Widely distributed throughout the body, but concentrated in regions where body is more susceptible to injury or invasion
Cervical Region
Axillary
Breasts
Abdominal
Inguinal (one superficial and one deep)

Think of them as biological filters dispersed along the path of the lymphatic system

Only organs that filter lymph

Reticular tissue cells (like network of cotton fibers)

Respond to antigens

143
Q

Structure of Lymph Nodes

A

Bean Shaped

Lymph nodes consist of:
Hilum, where blood vessels and nerves enter and exit

Capsule with afferent vessels

Subcapsular space
Many dendritic cells

Outer cortex
Includes germinal center
Contains B cells

Paracortex
Contains T cells

Medulla
Contains B cells and macrophages

Medullary cords
Hilum with efferent vessels, blood vessels, and nerves

Efferent Lymph Vessel = emerges from the gland, commence from the lymph sinus of the medullary portion
Afferent Lymph Vessel = enters the organ at different parts of the periphery

144
Q

The Thymus

A

Refines T Cells… if a faulty T Cell fighting our tissue, gets rid of it

Lies posterior to the manubrium of the sternum

Reaches its greatest size relative to body size by age 1 or 2

Reaches maximum size by puberty

Diminishes in size after puberty

Consists of two thymic lobes (left and right)

Consists of numerous lobules (about 2 mm in width) separated by septa

Consists of a cortex and a medulla

The cortex consists of:
Stem cells that differentiate to form T cells
Mature T cells migrate to the medulla

The medulla consists of:
T cells that remain inactive until they enter circulation
Thymic corpuscles (function is unknown)

Epithelial reticular cells are scattered throughout the thymus
Produce thymic hormones such as thymosin

145
Q

The Spleen

A

Largest lymphatic organ (12 cm in length)

Located on the left edge of the stomach

Attached to the stomach via the gastrosplenic ligament

Surfaces of the Spleen
Consists of the following areas or regions
Diaphragmatic surface
Visceral surface
The visceral surface contains the hilum
Exhibits indentations/impressions of organs
Gastric area
Renal area

Blood supply enters via splenic artery, venous blood drains to splenic vein

The spleen consists of:
Capsule

Red pulp
Contains large quantities of red blood cells and macrophages
Macrophages identify and engulf damaged or infected red blood cells

White pulp
Forms lymphoid nodules
Can respond to antigens or pathogens in the blood

Functions of Spleen
Initiates a immune response when antigens found in blood (white pulp)

Serves a reservoir for RBCs and Platelets (red pulp)

Phagocytizes old, defective RBCs and Platelets (red pulp) and bacteria

146
Q

Aging of the Lymphatic System

A

As we age:
T cells become less responsive to antigens

Number of helper T cells declines

B cells then become less responsive as well
Age increases susceptibility to infections and cancer

Thymus gland diminishes in size

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