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IB Biology HL > 2 molecular biology > Flashcards

2 molecular biology Flashcards

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1
Q

function of nuclear membrane/envelope

A

controls crossing of macromolecules and permit passing of smaller molecules. shields cell

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2
Q

function of nucleolus

A

helps in protein synthesis and production of lysomes

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3
Q

function of chromatin

A

genetic material that results in formation of chromsome

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4
Q

function of centrioles

A

creates and anchors microtubules

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5
Q

function of microtubules

A

pull apart in cell division to form chromosomes

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6
Q

function of mitochondria

A

site of aerobic respiration (ATP production)

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7
Q

function of plasma membrane

A

semi permeable and selective barrier surrounding cell

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8
Q

function of ribosomes

A

site of polypeptide synthesis and translation

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9
Q

function of golgi body

A

involved in sorting, storing, modification and export of secretory products

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10
Q

function of cytoplasm

A

provides support to organelles and site of chemical reaction

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11
Q

function of free ribosome

A

synthesise proteins

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12
Q

function of rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

protein synthesis and storage

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13
Q

function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

synthesis and transport of lipids and carbohydrates

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14
Q

function of golgi body

A

helps modify proteins and package them into vesicles

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15
Q

function of lysosome

A

breakdown/hydrolysis of macromolecules

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16
Q

function of cytoskeleton

A

provides internal structure and mediates intracellular transport

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17
Q

function of nucleus

A

stores genetic material as chromosomes

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18
Q

what atoms is water made up of in what bonding

A

2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen, joined by covalent bonds

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19
Q

what makes water molecules polar

A

the oxygen nucleus is stronger and can attract more electrons. this means the oxygen atom will have a slight negative charge whilst the hydrogen atoms are slightly positive. this is called a polar covalent bond. as the two hydrogen atoms are on one side, and the oxygen is at the other, they have polarity.

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20
Q

what happens when cations and anions bond

A

they form an ionic bond

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21
Q

what happens when water molecules (which have partial charges) attract each other

A

due to the partial charges, the attraction is less, but still enough to have significant effects. the attraction between the molecules is called a hydrogen bond. (it is actually more of an intermolecular force than a bond.)

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22
Q

what does molecules being adhesive mean

A

they can stick to surfaces

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23
Q

what does molecules being cohesive mean

A

they can stick to eachother

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24
Q

is water adhesive, cohesive or both or none

A

both

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25
Q

why is water a stable environment to live in

A

because the water molecules can attract each other, it takes a lot of energy to heat and boil. this means it has a high specific heat capacity. it is also less dense than many other molecules when frozen, and will rise to the top instead of displacing the water below it.

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26
Q

what is a carbohydrate made up of

A

1 carbon atom, 1 oxygen atom and 2 hydrogen atoms

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27
Q

what is a carbohydrate of one unit

A

(this is a monomer) a monosaccharide

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28
Q

what is a carbohydrate of two units

A

(this is a dimer) a di-saccharide

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29
Q

what is a carbohydrate of many units

A

(this is a polymer) a polysaccharide

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30
Q

what are proteins made up of

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur.

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31
Q

what are the building blocks (monomers) that make up proteins

A

amino acids or ‘mono-peptides’.

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32
Q

what is the basic structure of a protein

A

an amino group, a central carbon, a carboxylic acid and a variable R group (of which there are 20 types)

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33
Q

what is two amino acids joined together called

A

(a dimer) a di-peptide

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34
Q

what is many amino acids joined together called

A

(a polymer) a polypeptide

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35
Q

what do we call it when a long chain of amino acids fold up into a 3D structure

A

a protein

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36
Q

what are lipids

A

fats, oils or waxes

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37
Q

how are lipids different from other molecules

A

they are not polymers built out of monomers

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38
Q

what are lipids made up of

A

two distinct molecules:
glycerol
fatty acids

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39
Q

what is a glycerol molecule

A

a simple molecule with 3 carbons and 3 alcohol groups

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40
Q

what is a fatty acid

A

a chain of carbons and hydrogens with a carboxylic acid group. the length of the chain can vary from 4 - 28 carbons

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41
Q

what is a triglyceride

A

3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol

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42
Q

what was vitalism

A

the thought that living organisms could only be made of organic chemicals that could only be produced in living organisms

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43
Q

who disproved vitalism

A

german chemist fredrich wohler

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44
Q

how did wohler disprove vitalism

A

he synthesized urea artifically using silver isocynate and ammonium chloride. this was the first time that an organic compound had been synthesized artifically.

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45
Q

how many bonds does hydrogen make

A

one

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46
Q

how many bonds does oxygen make

A

two

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47
Q

how many bonds does nitrogen make

A

three

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48
Q

how many bonds does carbon make

A

four

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49
Q

what is the metabolism

A

all the enzyme catalysed reactions in a cell or organism. most pathways consist of chain reaction sor cycles of reactions

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50
Q

what is anabolism

A

the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules.

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51
Q

what type of reaction is anabolic reactions

A

condensation because water is produced

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52
Q

what is catabolism

A

breaking down of complex molecules into simpler molecules including the hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers. in hydrolysis reactions, water molecules are split.

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53
Q

chain of metabolism

A

inital substrate
—>
intermediate substance x 4
–>
end product

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54
Q

when are molecules polar

A

when the nucleus of one of the atoms is more attractive to the electrons than the other and so the electrons are not shared equally. this means part of the molecule has a positive charge and part has a negative charge.

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55
Q

are water molecules polar

A

yes

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56
Q

melting point of methane

A

-182

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57
Q

melting point of water

A

0

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58
Q

specific heat capacity of water

A

4.2 J per g per degree celsius

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59
Q

specific heat capacity of methane

A

2.2 J per g per degree celsius

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60
Q

latent heat of vapourization of methane

A

760 J celsius

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61
Q

latent heat of vapourization of water

A

2257 J celsius

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62
Q

boiling point of methane

A

-160

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63
Q

boiling point of water

A

100

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64
Q

why is waters mp and bp higher than methane

A

heat energy needed to break hydrogen bonds and allow water to change states.

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65
Q

why is the specific heat capacity of water higher than methan

A

hydrogen bonds restrict movement so more energy is stored by moving molecules of water than methane

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66
Q

why is the latent heat of vapourization of water higher than methane

A

much heat energy is needed to break hydrogen bonds and allow a water molecule to evaporate.

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67
Q

why do hydrophilic substances dissolve in water

A

because their ions/molecules are more attracted to water than to each other.

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68
Q

ions with positive or negative charges dissolve as

A

they are attracted to the negative or positive poles of water molecules

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69
Q

how does NaCl travel in the body

A

dissolved in plasma as it is soluble.

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70
Q

how do glucose and amino acids travel in the body

A

polar so can be transported dissolved in the plasma

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71
Q

how does oxygen travel in the body

A

non polar and dissolved amount in plasma is insufficent so red blood cells are needed with haemoglobin to which oxygen binds.

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72
Q

how do cholesterol and fats travel in the body

A

non polar and insoluble in water so transported in small droplets called lipoproteins. cholesterol and fats are inside, coated by phospholipids and proteins.

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73
Q

monosaccharides consist of

A

a single sub unit

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74
Q

monosaccharides contain

A

carbon hydrogen and oxygen in the ration 1:2:1

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75
Q

ribose

A

PHOTO

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76
Q

fatty acid

A

PHOTO

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77
Q

amino acid

A

PHOTO

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78
Q

alpha-d-glucose

A

PHOTO

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79
Q

beta glucose

A

PHOTO

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80
Q

starch

A

PHOTO

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81
Q

cellulose

A

orintation of glucose units alternates which makes the polymer straight and not curved, allowing cellulose molecules to be arranged in parallel with hydrogen bonds forming cross links. these have enormous tensile strength and are the basis of plant cell walls.

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82
Q

starch

A

helical shape as glucose subunits are in the same orientation. used in plants to stroe glucose in an insoluble form that does not cause osmotic problems. by making the glucose branched its easier to load or unload glucose more rapidlttwo types: amylose and amylopectin

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83
Q

amylose

A

only 1,4 linkages so is unbranched

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84
Q

amylopectin

A

1,6 linkages so is branched

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85
Q

linkage between glucose subunits

A

glycosidic bond

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86
Q

what is glycogen a branched polymer of

A

alpha d glucose

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87
Q

what is glycogen used for

A

by mammals to store glucse in liver and muscle cells. because glycogen is insoluble, large amounts can be stored but if it were glucose, it would cause water to enter the cells via osmosis and they would burst.

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88
Q

why cant hydrogen bonds form in cellulose

A

because the chains of alpha d glucose in starch and glycogen are helical, they cannot become aligned in a parallel array so hydrogen bonds do not form.

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89
Q

what abilities do hydrogen bonds mean water has

A

cohesiveness
adhesiveness
thermal properties
solvent properties

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90
Q

water moleule is

A

a polar molecuel made of 1 oxygen and 2 hydrogen atoms

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91
Q

polarity is

A

having positively and negatively charged areas because of uneven distribution of electrons.

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92
Q

negative pole is

A

area with more electrons, around the oxygen atom.

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93
Q

postitive pole is

A

area with fewer electrons, near the hydrogen atom nuclei.

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94
Q

hydrogen bond is

A

a weak bond formed between polar water molecules

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95
Q

why is cohesion high in water

A

because H bonds make water moleucules stick to eachother more strongly. it causes surface tension.

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96
Q

why is density lower in ice

A

because extra hydrogen bonds cause cold water molecules to move apart slightly

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97
Q

why does water havea high specific heat capacity

A

because some heat is used to break h bonds so more is needed to raise the temperature

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98
Q

why is water an excellent solvent

A

because polar molecuels dissolve so many substnaces

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99
Q

why is water being transparent useful

A

if the organism does photosynthesis e.g water plants

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100
Q

benefits of water being made of a polar molecule

A

it can form dipole dipole bonds

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101
Q

benefits of water polarity

A

things with a charge can dissolve in it like glucose and minerals

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102
Q

benefits of water having hydrogen bonds and high cohesion

A

water can stay together and it is a adv for plants as water can travel up the plant and draw up more water

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103
Q

why is it useful that ice has a lower density

A

doesnt crush marine enviornemtn

allows organisms to live on top

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104
Q

why is water having a high specific heat capacity useful

A

keeps environment stable

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105
Q

why is water a good coolant in sweat

A

each molecule has lots of heat energy

when it evaporates it takes the heat energy with it

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106
Q

which statae is methane in the earths atmosphere

A

gas

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107
Q

how might hydrogen bonds change the cohesion of water molecules compared to hydrogen molecules

A

greater cohesion between molecules, useful in blood, and in xylem tubes where water flows

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108
Q

if humans made sweat with methane how would it change the effectiveeness of sweating to cool the skin

A

methane would not take as much heat away as water when it evaporated because it has a low specific heat capacity

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109
Q

suggest why cytoplasm or blood made with water would be better for living things than cytoplasm or blood made from methane

A

A cytoplasm of water can dissolve lots of proteins, and salts which are essential for life. The reactions of metabolism happen in solution, and can’t happen unless they dissolve. Blood transports lots of substances including oxygen and nutrients, hormones and antibodies. Many of these molecules would not dissolve in methane.

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110
Q

what feature of carbon makes it most suitable as a basis for life

A

its bonding properties

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111
Q

what property of water accounts for its moderating effects on the earths atmosphere

A

thermal

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112
Q

what are the most frequently occuring elements in living organisms

A

nitrogen carbon oxygen and hydrogen

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113
Q

explain waters solvent properties

A

water molecule is polar
water forms hydrogen bonds with polar substances
positive pole attracted to negativ eions
(negative pole attracted to positive ions)
glucose dissolves because its polar
sodium chloride dissolves becuase ions are attracted to it

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114
Q

three uses of fat in the body are

A

energy store
insulation
keeps cholesterol under control
helps your body absorb soluble vitamins

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115
Q

name three types of dietary fat

A

trans/cis mono/poly un/sat urated fat

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116
Q

what is the difference between poly unsaturated nad mono unsaturated fat

A

poly: more than one double bond
mono: only one double bond

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117
Q

what is the cis formation of fatty acid

A

the carbons are on the same side of the C=C

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118
Q

what is the trans formation of fatty acid

A

the carbons are opposite eachother on the C=C

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119
Q

give reasons why the food industry makes trans fats

A

stores long time (easy and cheap)
deep frying
tastes good/pallitability
bulks up food and is useful

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120
Q

list some influences which trans fats has on the body and health

A

increases risk of heart disease

shortens lifespan

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121
Q

what are triglycerides

A

three fatty acids and one glycerol by condensation reactions so they have three hydrocarbon tails
fats and oils are trigylcerides

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122
Q

what are phospolipids

A

simialr to triglycerides but only have two fatty acids linked to glycerol, with a phosphate group instead of the third fatty acid. phospholipids are only partly hydrophobic and form the basis of membranes

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123
Q

what are steroids

A

all have a similar structure of four fused rings in the molecule. cholesterol, progesterone and estrogen are all steroids.

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124
Q

what are the parts to a fatty acid

A

an acidic carboxyl group

unbranched hydrocarbon chain

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125
Q

saturated hydrocarbon

A

all single bonds

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126
Q

unsaturated hydrocarbon

A

one or more double bonds

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127
Q

adv of using lipids instead of carbohydrates for long term storage

A

amount of energy released in cell respiration per gram of lipids is double the amount released from a gram of carbohydrates.
fats form pure droplets in cells with no water, whereas each gram of glycogen is associated with two grams of water, so lipids are 6 times more efficient.

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128
Q

how to calculate bmi

A

(height in meters)sqaured

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129
Q

bmi of under 18.5

A

underweight

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130
Q

bmi of 18.5 to 24.9

A

normal weight

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131
Q

bmi of 25 to 29.9

A

overweight

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132
Q

bmi of 30 or more

A

obese

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133
Q

health issues of trans fats

A

coronary heart disease

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134
Q

health issues of saturated fats

A

coronary heart disease but could be correlated with low amounts of dietary fibre instead

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135
Q

alternatives to bmi

A

waist to hip ratio for men

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136
Q

Alpha d glucose

A

Used in the production of ATP in cells

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137
Q

Beta D glucose

A

Used to build cell walls in plants

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138
Q

Starch

A

Used as long term storage in plants

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139
Q

Ribose

A

Used as a component of DNA and RNA

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140
Q

Triglycerides

A

Used as long term storage in adipose tissue in animals

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141
Q

Steroids

A

Used as chemical messengers in the body, have a distinctive ring shape

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142
Q

Phospholipids

A

Major component of plasma membranes

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143
Q

Structural proteins

A

Proteins such as keratin and collagen form the structural framework of many parts of the body

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144
Q

Polypeptides

A

A sequence of amino acids that may make up a portion or a series of polypeptides can also make up a protein

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145
Q

DNA

A

Used to store genetic information

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146
Q

RNA

A

Used to create proteins at ribosomes using the information stored in DNA

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147
Q

Metabolism

A

All the enzymatic reactions that take place inside a living organism

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148
Q

Anabolism

A

Synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules, a process that requires the input of energy. Includes the formation of macromolecules from monomers by condensation reactions. E.g. protein and starch are made from amino acids, and glucose units.

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149
Q

Catabolism

A

The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules and includes the hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers. The breakdown of sugars (including glycolysis) or fats to release energy are all examples of catabolic reactions - where energy is released.

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150
Q

What is a hydrolysis reaction

A

Breaking of chemical bonds by addition of water molecules

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151
Q

What is a condensation reaction

A

Refers to the reaction in which two smaller organic molecules combine to form a larger molecule with the accompanied formation of water or some other simple molecule.

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152
Q

Metabolism =

A

Anabolism + catabolism

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153
Q

Urea formula

A

CO(NH2)2

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154
Q

what is the basic unit of a polypeptide

A

amino acid

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155
Q

what is an amino acid made up of

A

a carboxyl group (-COOH)

an amino group (-NH2)

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156
Q

are polypeptides the same thing as proteins

A

yes

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157
Q

compare proteins and peptides

A

peptides are smaller.
peptides are molecuels that consist of 2-50 amino acids.
proteins are polymers made up of 51 or more amino acids

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158
Q

how many amino acids are there

A

20

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159
Q

where does synthesis of polypeptides take place

A

ribosomes during translation

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160
Q

what are the peptide bonds between each amino acid a result of

A

a condensation reaction

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161
Q

how does a protein conformation happen

A

a change in the order of amino acids

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162
Q

how does sickle cell anemia happen

A

the glutamic acid is substituted by valine, structurally changing haemoglobin

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163
Q

what is the primary structure of proteins

A

the sequence of amino acids

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164
Q

what is the secondary structure of proteins

A

the folding of the chains on themselves to form pleated sheets or alpha helixes

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165
Q

what is the tertiary structure of proteins

A

when the polypeptide coils and folds to form a 3d shape

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166
Q

what is the quaternary structure of proteins

A

when proteins are made up of 2 or more polypeptide chains, and refers to the way the multiple subunits are held together in a multi-sub unit complex.

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167
Q

give an example of a protein with a quaternary structure

A

two alpha and two beta chains

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168
Q

what is the proteome

A

each organism’s unique set of proteins

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169
Q

what can proteome analysis be used for

A

medical research and cancer treatment, determining if a particualr chemotherapy will be successful

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170
Q

globular proteins

A

globe like proteins that play active roles in the cells metabolism. e.g haemoglobin

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171
Q

what do globular proteins consist of

A

complex polypeptide chains that can be linked to other chains to form large complex proteins.

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172
Q

why are globular proteins usually soluble

A

hydrophobic r groups are folded into the core of the molecule

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173
Q

fibrous proteins

A

long, threadlike,

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174
Q

why are fibrous proteins usually insolouble

A

usually made of long polypeptide chains where the hydrophobic r groups are exposed, making the molecule insoluble.

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175
Q

where are fibrous protiens often found

A

in structural parts of organisms, such as tendons and skin (collagen and keratin)

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176
Q

rubisco

A

globular

An enzyme involved in the fixation of CO 2 in chloroplasts.

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177
Q

insulin

A

globular

A hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreas, which is involved in glucose uptake from the blood.

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178
Q

immunoglobin

A

globular
These are large Y-shaped proteins, also called antibodies, involved in fighting infections by specifically recognising and binding to antigen molecules.

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179
Q

rhodopsin

A

globular
A protein linked to pigment, found on the membrane of rod (photoreceptor) cells of the retina, where it allows very low light intensities to be detected.

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180
Q

collagen

A

fibrous
A structural protein, found in muscles, tendons and ligaments, where it gives tensile strength. It also occurs in skin and bones, where it prevents tearing and fractures, respectively.

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181
Q

spider silk

A

fibrous

A fibrous protein produced by spiders for their webs. It can be extended and is very resistant to breaking.

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182
Q

what is denaturation

A

how proteins lose their secondary, tertiary and sometimes quaternary structures. the hydrogen bonds between R groups are disrupted and active sites change shape, making the whole enzyme lose their enzymatic properties.

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183
Q

how do you denature proteins

A

expose it to higher temps

change the pH

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184
Q

what doesnt break during denaturaiton, allowing the primary structure to remain

A

the peptide bonds holding adjacent amino acids together.

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185
Q

what breaks the bonds between non adjacent amino acids or between the polypeptide chains of quaternary proteinjs

A

strong alkaline or acidic solutions

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186
Q

what do amino acids consist of

A

hydrogen
amine group
carboxyl group
r group or radical

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187
Q

proteome

A

all the proteins produced by the cell

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188
Q

what is a polypeptide

A

an unbranched chain of amino acids

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189
Q

chains of fewer than 40 amino acids are usually called

A

peptides

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190
Q

how are protein structures stabilised

A

intramolecular bonds (these cause denaturation if broken during high temps or

191
Q

what do catalysts do

A

speed up chemical reactions without being changed themselves

192
Q

what type of proteins are enzymes

A

globular

193
Q

a reactant in an enxyme catalysed reaction is called a …

A

substrate

194
Q

where do enzymes catalyse reactions

A

on the active site

195
Q

when does catalysis occur

A

only when the substrates are in liquid so their mlecules are in continual random motion and there is a chance of collisions between the substrates and the actives ite on the surface of the enzyme

196
Q

what is an enzyme product complex

A

when the substrate is binded to the enzyme. they are chemically attracted to eachother and fit together.

197
Q

what reduces the energy needed to turn substrates into products

A

the binding of substrates to the active site

198
Q

benefits of enzyme immobilization

A

catalysis can be controlled by adding or removing enzymes
enzyme conc can be higher
enzymes can be reused
enzymes are resistant to denaturation over high pH and temperature
enzymes do not contaminate products

199
Q

what is enzyme immobilization

A

attatchment of enzymes to another material or into aggregations to restrict their movement

200
Q

methods of enzyme immoblization

A

(adsorption) attachment to surfaces like glass
(alginate) entrapment in a membrane or a gel
(aggregation) by bonding enzymes together into particles of up to 0.1 mm in diameter

201
Q

attraction stage

A

substrate moving towards enzyme

202
Q

reaction stage

A

substrate-enzyme complex

203
Q

release stage

A

products released and enzyme reverts to original shpe

204
Q

compeitive inhibitor

A

competes for active site of enxyme

205
Q

transition state

A

when the substrate is about to become a product

206
Q

non-competitve inhibitor

A

attaches to the enzyme but not to the active site, which then changes due to the inhibitor squishing the enzyme round the sides as it joins. now the enzyme requires LOADS of potential substrate to hopefuly get a reaction

207
Q

why do substrates bind and not bond

A

it is not permenant

208
Q

what does collision theory require

A

particles must collide
sufficent energy
correct orientation

209
Q

what do enzymes and substrates require for a successful collision and reaction

A

speed to have enough activation energy

orientation (so the substrate fits into the enzyme active site)

210
Q

what do enzymes do

A

speed up reaction
dont get used up
dont alter end product

211
Q

what is the induced fit model

A

the idea the enzyme isnt perfectly suited to the substrate but to the transition state. therefore the reaction will actually happen and the complexes wont just stay (the lock and key method)

212
Q

factors affectign enzyme activity

A

temperature
pH
substrate conc

213
Q

effect of temperature on enzymes

A

enzyme activity increases as temperature increases because collisions between substrate and active site happen more frequently at higher temperatures due to faster molecular motion.
at high temps enzymes are denatured and stop working. this is because heat causes vibrations inside enzymes which break bonds needed to maintain the structure of the enzyme

214
Q

effect of pH on enzymes

A

enzyme activity is reduced as pH decreases from the optimum because the conformation of the enzyme is altered more and more. a certain pH the acidity (H+ ions interrupting bonds) denaturing the enzyme. above the optimum the alkalinity (OH- ions interrupting bonds) denatures the enzyme.

215
Q

effect of substrate concentration

A

at low substrate concentrations, enzyme activity increases steeply as substrate conc increases as random collisions between substrate and active sites happen more easily. at higher substrate conc, most of the active sites are occupied, so raising the substrate conc has little effect on enzyme activity

216
Q

how to design an enzyme activity - the independent variable

A

should be wide enough to show all trends, like pH 1-14

217
Q

how to design an enzyme activity - the dependent variable

A

measurement you take to assess the rate of enzyme activity. could be time taken for a substrate to be used up or quantity of of a product. measurement should be quantitative and accurate. should be repeated for replicate results that can be compared to evaluate whether they are reliable.

218
Q

how to design an enzyme activity - the control variable

A

are other factors that could affect enzyme actiivty. must be kept constant for valid results. eg temperature, time, etc

219
Q

what is a limiting factor

A

somethign which affects the rate of reaction

220
Q

what is transcription

A

copying the DNA by synthesising mrna from the dna base sequences

221
Q

what is translation

A

interpreting the genetic code to synthesise proteins (more specifically polypeptide chains) on ribosomes

222
Q

when does replication of a new dna molecule occur in the cell cycle

A

s phase

223
Q

dna is normally supercoiled by being tightly wound around histones to form nucleosomes. the first step is to unwind the coils to make them accessible to enzymes. then

A

the enzyme helicase unwinds the double helix and seperates the two DNA strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the bases.

224
Q

after helicase seperates the DNA strands, what happens

A

another enzyme (dna polymerase) can start making new strands of DNA using the two old parent strands as templates

225
Q

what direction does DNA replication occur in

A

5’ to 3’

226
Q

how/why is dna replication semi-conservative

A

because each daughter molecule formed contains one original strand from the old molecule and one newly synthesised strand

227
Q

what did meselson and stahl do

A

culture e.coli bacteria in a medium where the only nitrogen source was 15N, thereby meaning the nitrogen in the bases was 15N.

they then transferred the bacteria abruptly to a medium with the less density 14N isotope.

a solution of caesium chloride was spun in a centrifuge at 45,000 revolutions per min or 24 hours. caesium ions are heavy, and sank, causing a gradient with caesium ions at the bottom.

substances centrifuged with caesium chloride solution becomes concentrated at its level of density.

they spun bacteria cultures at different times after the transfer to the 14N medium.

after one generation, the DNA was intermediate. after 2, there were two equal bands, one still 14N and 15N, and one at 14N density. eventually the 14N became stronger.

228
Q

adenine pairs with

A

thymine (if not uracil)

229
Q

guanine pairs with

A

cytosine

230
Q

when does thymine become uracil

A

in rna

231
Q

what is rna polymerase responsibile for

A

seperating the dna strands of the double helix as well as for joining the ribonucleotides together by phosphodiester/covalent bonds to form an mRNA strnad

232
Q

the DNA strand that is not transcribed is called the..

A

sense strand. inactive. has same bases as mrna (complementary to the antisense strand) but with thymine not uracil

233
Q

the DNA strand that is transcribed is called the…

A

antisense strand. active.

complementary to mrna strand and sense strand

234
Q

how mant bases code for an amino acid

A

3

235
Q

outlinethe process which results in the formation of a strand of mRNA. include details of how the genetic code is preserved.

A

mRNA is made through transcription.

the enzyme RNA polymerase adds the RNA nucleotides, whilst unzipping and zipping the DNA strands.

Adenine joins to Uracil and Cytosine joins to Guanine in the mRNA single stranded molecule.

the genetic code is preserved because the complementary bases pair up in a certain way. (more detail?)

236
Q

what is translation

A

the synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes according to the genetic code
mrna to polypeptide

237
Q

what does a degenerate genetic code mean

A

some amino acids can be encoded by more than one codon. it is also universal, so the gentic information in bacteria is translated in the same way as that of any other organism.

238
Q

AUG codon

A

met or start

239
Q

what are the stop codons

A

UAA
UAG
UGA

240
Q

where is the anticodon

A

on the trna

241
Q

where is the codon

A

on the mrna strand

242
Q

where is the peptide bond

A

between proteins, above the trna and mrna

243
Q

where does intramolecular base pairing occur

A

between the strand of trna when folded into a molecule (kinda, see diagram)

244
Q

where are amino acids joined together to make polyppetides

A

ribosomes

245
Q

give three overall stages of protein synthesis

A

an amino acid binds to trna.
trna moves from a binding site on the ribosome.
the ribosome reaches a stop codon

246
Q

describe the genetic code and its relationship to polypeptides

A

the genetic code undergoes transcription to form a single stranded mrna from the double stranded dna using complementary base pairing

adenine joins to uracil (as thymine is replaced in rna) and cytosine joins to guanine

translation involves trna moving along the mrna strand attaching amino acids to codons of 3 bases, in the ribosome.

each codon is one amino acid

when the trna comes to a stop codon, it terminates, leaving a polypeptide, which are joined in the golgi to become a protein.

each gene codes for a polypeptide.

247
Q

explain what pcr is fundamentaly

A

the desired section of dna is placed in a reaction chamber that contains many free nucleoside triphosphates, primers that will allow replication to occur from the desired point.
a special heat stable version of dna polymerase called taq polymerase is used as it doesnt denature at high temps.

248
Q

explain the process of pcr

A

dna is heated to break the hydrogen bonds that hold the double helix together. 98 degrees. then the short primer sequences will bond to complementary sequences in the dna sample.
this allows taq polymerase to replicate dna using the primer as a starting point. (have to add on to, cannot create nucleotides). repeated.
each time a cycle occurs, the amount of dna doubles, resulting in exponential growth. within a few hours, enough cycles of pcr have occurred to create billions of copies of the dna sequence.

249
Q

3 stages of pcr

A

denaturation
annealing
extension

250
Q

denaturation of pcr

A

temp is increased to 98 degrees to seperate dna strands

251
Q

annealing of pcr

A

temp is decreased at 60 degrees to allow primers to base pair to complementary dna template.

252
Q

extension of pcr

A

heat resistant taq polymerase replicated dna to build new dna strand

253
Q

how many amino acids does insulin contain

A

51

254
Q

a human cell and protein gene merge to make

A

a recombinant plasmid (with addition of plasmid) to a transgenic bacteria, to be grown in culture and then become insulin/human protein

255
Q

a gene for a human protein is translated by using the same codons as…

A

a bacterial gene

256
Q

waht are transgenic microorganisms

A

placing a gene from one organism into a different one by inserting a gene from another organism into the plasmid of their cells.

257
Q

what are plasmids

A

small circular DNA molecules in some prokaryotic cells that dna be used as transfer molecules.

258
Q

glucose + oxygen

A

carbon dioxide + water

259
Q

C6H12O6 + 6O2

A

6CO2 + 6 H2O

260
Q

cellular respiration def

A

the gradual and controlled release of energy by breaking down organic compounds to produce ATP

261
Q

when is energy produced

A

when ATP is hydrolysed

262
Q

what is the strucutre of ATP

A

adenine

ribose phosphate phosphate phosphate

263
Q

where does glycolysis take place

A

in the cytoplasm

264
Q

where does the krebs cycle and oxidative phsphorylation occur

A

mitochondria

265
Q

glucose –>

A

lactate + 2ATP

266
Q

glucose –>

A

ethanol + carbon dioxide + 2ATP molecules

267
Q

uses of yeast

A

beer, wine, bread, cheese

268
Q

define cell respiration

A

controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP

269
Q

substrate used for aerobic resp

A

glucose or lipids

270
Q

substrate used for anaeriobic resp

A

glucose only

271
Q

products of aerobic resp

A

CO2 and water

272
Q

products of anaerobic resp

A

humans: lactate
yeast: CO2 and lactate

273
Q

when is anaerobic resp used

A

sprinting or weight lifting

274
Q

how long can anaerobic resp be used

A

about 2 mins, after that hydrogen ion conentrations would make the pH of the blood too low, so aerobic cell resp must be used and high intensity exercise cant be continued

275
Q

explain how yeast is used in bread

A

uses up all oxygen present, then produces ethanol and carbon dioxide, producing bubbles. when the dough is baked, ethanol evaporates.

276
Q

explain how ethanol and the brewing and biofuel industries

A

yeast can be used to produce ethanol by fermentation. the yeast is cultured in a liquid containing sugar and other nutrients, but not oxygen so it respires anaerobically. the ethanol conc of the fluid around the yeast cells rises, and then becomes toxic so fermentation ends. most CO2 bubbles out into the atmosphere. beer, wine and other alcoholic drinks are brewed in this way. ethanol is also produced by fermentation for use as a fuel

277
Q

what does glycolysis involve

A

glucose –> pyruvate.
produces 2ATP
substrate-level phosphorylation

278
Q

where does glycolysis occur

A

cytoplasm

279
Q

where does the krebs cycle occur

A

matrix, or mitochondria

280
Q

what does krebs cycle involve

A

produces 4ATP, but uses 2 so net 2

substrate level phosphorylation

281
Q

where does the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation occur

A

cristae

282
Q

what does the electron transport chian and oxidative phosphorylation invovle

A

30+ ATP
ATP synthase
oxidative phosphorylation

283
Q

what does phosphorylation mean

A

adding a phosphate

284
Q

Which chemical reaction is taking place when a dipeptide is converted to two amino acids

A

hydrolysis

285
Q

Name the bond that forms when two amino acids react together in a condensation reaction.

Peptide bond

A

peptide bodn

286
Q

The secondary structure involves the folding of the chains on themselves to form

A

pleated sheets or alpha helixes

287
Q

A quaternary structure only occurs in proteins that are made up of…

A

two or more polypeptide chains and refers to the way the multiple subunits are held together in a multi subunit complex

288
Q

examples of proteins with quaternary structure

A

hemoglobin and rubisco

289
Q

why can hemoglobin be a quartnary stucture (roughly)

A

consists of four polypeptide chains

290
Q

is hemoglobin globular or fiberous

A

globular

291
Q

What does enzyme–substrate specificity mean

A

enzymes can only catalyse one type of reaction

292
Q

exergonic

A

a reaction that involves a release of energy

293
Q

endergonic

A

a reaction that involves an absorption of energy

294
Q

Yogurt is tolerated better than milk by lactose-intolerant people because

A

lactase from bacteria in yoghurt helps digest the lactose

295
Q

what do purines have

A

two rings in their structure

296
Q

what do pyrimidines have

A

only one ring in their structure

297
Q

which nucleotides are pyramidines

A

thymine
cytosine
uracil

298
Q

which nucleotides are purines

A

adenine

guanine

299
Q

what links nucleotides

A

phosphodiester bonds

300
Q

when nucleotides are linked by phosphotidester bonds what is formed

A

polynucleotide

301
Q

what does the phosphodiester bond link

A

the phosphate group attatched to the 5’ C of one sugar and the hydroxyl group attatched to the 3’ C of another sugar

302
Q

what are the two strands of dna held together by

A

hydrogen bonds

303
Q

how did crick and watson build upon rosalind franklins work

A

they used her dna x-ray diffraction patterns to deduce that dna molecules must have a regular double helix structure

304
Q

how did crick and watson build upon chargraffs base ratio

A

they deduced complentary base pariing. thy then visualised it and saw how th emolecule looked/arranged.

305
Q

where is the genetic material stored in eukaryotes

A

nuclues

306
Q

where is the genetic material stored in prokaryotes

A

cytoplasm

307
Q

when does dna replication occur

A

during the S phase of the cell cycle

308
Q

when do number of chromosomes and genes change

A

doubles after dna replication.

309
Q

dispersive replciation

A

patches of newly and original sytnhesised strands

310
Q

conservative replication

A

one strand newly synthesised

one strand orgiinal

311
Q

semi conservative replication

A

alternating original and newly synthesised

312
Q

enzymes in dna replication»>

A

??

313
Q

what does tna do in dna replication

A

bring amino acids to the ribosome

314
Q

A unicellular organism that carries a specific gene from another organism is called a ______ organism

A

transgenic

315
Q

which organelle is used in gene transfer

A

plasmids

316
Q

glycolysis turns

A

glucose to pyruvate

317
Q

where does glycoloysis take place

A

cytoplasm

318
Q

where does krebs cycle take place

A

mitochondria, matrix

319
Q

where does oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain) take place

A

mitochondria, inner membrane of the mitochondrial enevelope

320
Q

where does lactatae producdtion occur

A

cytoplasm (of muscle cell)

321
Q

What is the net yield of ATP produced by anaerobic respiration in yeast?

A

2 ATP molecules

322
Q

why should you use a respirometer in a waterbath

A

to ensure theat temperature does not affect the pressure and hence volume of air in the system

323
Q

what can alkaline solution be used for in a respirometer

A

absorb excess carbon dioxide

324
Q

photosyntheiss equation

A

6CO2 + 6H20 (sunlight and chlorophyll) = C6H12O6 + 6O2

325
Q

what is photolysis

A

the process by which water is split by light
photo - light
lysis - split

326
Q

what does photolysis generate

A

hydrogen ions, electrons and oxygen

327
Q

what are the electrons generated by photolysis used for

A

to generate ATP

328
Q

what happens to the electrons and hydrogen ions produced by photolysis

A

used in the later stages of photosynthesis

329
Q

what happens to the oxygen produced by photolysis

A

a waste product so diffuses out of the plant

330
Q

what are the two stages of photosynthesis

A

light dependent reaction

light independent reaction

331
Q

light dependednt reaction of photosynthesis

A

requires light
occurs on thylakoids
photolysis occurs now

332
Q

light independent reaction of photosynthesis

A

no light requirement
occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts
involves carbon fixation to produce carbohydrates

333
Q

what side of the chloroplast is light independednt

A

the side with the calvin cycle

334
Q

what does the calvin cycle involve

A

carbon dioxide fixed using atp, electrons and ions.
controlled by rubusco.
produces glucose

335
Q

which molecules of photlysis carry the energy needed to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide in the light independent reactions of the stroma

A

NADPH and ATP carry energy from the photolysis reactions to the stroma where carbon fixation takes palce

336
Q

what is the action spectrum

A

shows the efficency of photosynthesis or the rate of photosynthesis achieved over the various wavelengths of light from the visible spectrum

337
Q

what is the absorption spectrum

A

shows which wavelnegth of visible light is absorbed by a particualr photosynthetic pigment such as chlorophyll a or b measured by a spectrometer

338
Q

EXAMPLE OF

A

ABSORPTION SPECTRUM

339
Q

where should the peaks be in an absorption and action spectum

A

at approx 425nm in the blue region
at approx 670nm in the red region
the first peak is higher than the second peak

340
Q

suggest why chlorophyll A absorption spectrum is not exactly the same as the photosynthesis rate

A

might be other active pigments for photosynthesis in the leaf

341
Q

is photolysis anabolic or catabolic

A

anabolic (small molecules join to form large molecules)

342
Q

calvin cycle equation

A

carbon dioxide + water –> carbohydrates + oxygen

343
Q

what is a limiting factor

A

a factor that restricts the rate of reaction when present in a low amount

344
Q

when is water a limiting factor

A

when the plant is able to die due to dehydration

345
Q

how is light a limiting factor

A

photosynthesis operates via a certain number of photosystems that capture photons. if they are all occupied, the rate of reaction cannot rise anymore.

346
Q

how is carbon dioxide a limiting factor

A

raw material in production of carbohydrates, in carbon fixation, in the light dependent reaction,

347
Q

explain the plateau on the graph rate vs conc of carbon dioxide

A

once all the active sites of the enzymes involved in this cyclic process are occupied with a substrate, any further increase in carbon dioxide conc will not increase the rate

348
Q

how is temperature a limiting factor

A

causes denaturation of enzymes past their optimum temp

349
Q

what should you consider when investigating the effect of limiting factors on photosynthesis

A 
plant choice (eg aquatic or terrestial. one may make data collection easier)
finalise independent variabke
how many levels of independent variable and how many repeats.
think about accuracy (eg volume of gas produced oer counting bubbles)
350
Q

What are the two main components of eukaryotic chromosomes

A

Store DNA in nucleus/chromosomes

Histone proteins

351
Q

Summarize transcription

A

DNA molecule unzipped and unwound by RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase builds a mRNA molecule using the DNA as a template
mRNA leaves the nucleus through a nuclear pore.

352
Q

Summarise translation

A

mRNA binds for a ribosome
tRNA molecules being amino acids to the ribosome
tRNA anticodon attach to the mRNA codons in the correct sequence to build the polypeptide
AA joined by peptide bonds

353
Q

How does a gene in the nucleus make a protein in the cytoplasm

A

A gene is transcribed by rna CONTINUE

354
Q

In 1828 Friedrich Wohler synthesised an organic molecule. This falsified the theory of vitalism. Which organic molecule did he synthesise?

A

urea

355
Q

An amino acid consists of an amino group at one end and which group at the opposite end?

A

carboxyl

356
Q

which feature distinguishes between glucose and ribose molecules

A

ribose has five carbon atoms while glucose has six

357
Q

which property of water allows spiders to run across the surface of the water

A

cohesive properties

358
Q

Water can easily dissolve mineral ions for transport around plants. This is a very useful property of water. What term is used to describe this property of being able to dissolve mineral ions for transport?

A

solvent properties

359
Q

what is cellulose made of

A

long straight chains of beta glucose moelcules. these chains are joined by glycosidic bonds ot provide stability and strength to the molecule

360
Q

which disaccharide is made up of glucose and fructose joined by a glycosidic bond

A

sucrose

361
Q

what does rna and dna have between molecules within a nucleotide

A

covalent bonds

362
Q

describe the nucleic acid backbone

A

Nucleic acids are composed of a backbone of sugar molecules and phosphate groups. The nitrogen bases are attached to the sugars.

363
Q

what is the start codon of mrna

A

AUG. codes for the addition of methionine

364
Q

first amino acid in every polypeptide is

A

methionine

365
Q

Which enzyme is responsible for joining together the nucleotides of the new DNA strand during DNA replication?

A

DNA polymerase

366
Q

Which enzyme is responsible for unwinding the DNA double helix in preparation for DNA replication?

A

helicase

367
Q

Which enzyme is responsible for joining together the nucleotides of the new DNA strand during DNA replication?

A

DNA polymerase

368
Q

which process occurs in both aerobi and anaerobic cellular respiration

A

electron transport chain

369
Q

what is measured by a respirometer

A

rate of respiration

370
Q

where does the krebs cycle occur

A

matrix in mitochondria

371
Q

function of acetone in paper chromatography to separate photosynthetic pigments

A

It dissolves pigments, allowing them to travel up the paper strip.

372
Q

difference between action and absorption spectrum

A

The action spectrum represents the rate of photosynthesis at each wavelength of light while the absorption spectrum shows the percentage of light absorbed at each wavelength.

373
Q

carbon based compounds found in living organisms include:

A

lipids
carbohydrates
nucleic acids
proteins.

374
Q

which macromolecuels contain carbon hydrogen and oxygen

A

all of them

375
Q

which macromolecules also contain nitrogen

A

proteins and nucleic acids

376
Q

which macromolecules contain phosphorus

A

some lipids

377
Q

what is the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in carbohydrates

A

2:1

378
Q

what are nucleic acids

A

chains formed by nucleotides

379
Q

Alpha-D-glucose and function

A

Used in the production of ATP in cells.

380
Q

Beta-D-glucose

A

Used to build cell walls in plants.

381
Q

starch function

A

used as long term storage in plants

382
Q

ribose function

A

used as a component of dna and rna

383
Q

triglycerides function

A

used as long term storage in adipose tissue in animals

384
Q

sterioids function

A

Used as chemical messengers in the body, have a distinctive ring shape.

385
Q

phospholipids

A

major component of plasma membranes

386
Q

Structural proteins

A

Proteins such as keratin and collagen form the structural framework of many parts of the body.

387
Q

enzymes

A

metabolic proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body

388
Q

polypeptides

A

a sequence of amino acids that may make up a protein or a series of polypeptides can also make up a protein

389
Q

dna function

A

used to store genetic information

390
Q

rna function

A

used to create proteins at ribosomes using the information stored in dna

391
Q

saturated

A

contains no double bonds

392
Q

unsaturated

A

contains double bonds

393
Q

starch test

A

iodine solution, turns blue black

394
Q

protein test

A

biuret solution. turns purple

395
Q

carbohydrate test

A

benedicts solution. blue to orange or brick red

396
Q

hydrolysis reaction

A

the breaking of chemical bonds by the addition of water molecules.

397
Q

condensation reaction

A

refers to the reaction in which two smaller organic molecules combine to form a larger molecule with the accompanied formation of water or some other simple molecule.

398
Q

how does water have solvency, cohesion and adhesion?

A

polarity

399
Q

polarity of water

A

oxygen gains negative charge, hydrogens gain positive charge

400
Q

benefit of water having cohesive properties

A

Allows water to be pulled up from the roots to the leaves of plants.
Permits insects, such as pond skaters, to walk/float on the surface of water to catch their prey.

401
Q

benefit of water having adhesive properties

A

Capillary action generated by adhesive forces assists the pumping action of the heart to help blood move through blood vessels.
Adhesion of water molecules to the cell wall of xylem vessels helps water move against gravity from the roots to the leaves.

402
Q

beneit of water having thermal properties

A

Evaporation of sweat from body surfaces involves heat loss, which brings about a cooling effect.
The high specific heat capacity of water makes aquatic ecosystems more stable than terrestrial.

403
Q

benefit of water having solvent properties

A

Water dissolves mineral ions in the soil and transports it along xylem vessels from the roots to all parts of the plant.
Water in blood plasma dissolves a range of solutes and gases, which makes it possible for blood to transport nutrients and gases around the body
Water’s versatility (its ability to exist as a liquid, solid and vapour) makes water a universal solvent and medium for numerous biochemical reactions.

404
Q

which molecules are found in blood

A

glucose (dissolves)
amino acids (if R group hydrophilic. if not, transported in lower conc of blood)
fats (lipoproteins)
cholesterol (lipoproteins)

405
Q

main differences between water and methane

A

polar and non polar.

water has a much higher bp, mp, c and hvap

406
Q

no of carbon atoms in a monosaccharide

A

3-7. carbons joined to a hydroxyl group

407
Q

how are two monosaccharide monomers linked together

A

through a condensation reaction which forms a glycosidic bond producing a disaccharide, releasing one water molecule.

408
Q

what is sucrose composed of

A

glucose and fructose

409
Q

what is maltose composed of

A

2 units of glucose

410
Q

what is lactose composed of

A

glucose and galactose

411
Q

what is starch and glycogen and cellulose composed of

A

glucose

412
Q

what gives starch its stickiness

A

amylopectin

413
Q

how are tricglycerides formed

A

condensation reactions between one glycerol and three fatty acids, creating ester bonds

414
Q

bent cis fatty acid

A

both hydrogens on one side, leading to a bent molecule

415
Q

straight trans fatty acid

A

hydrogens on different sides of the carbon chain, leading to a straight molecule

416
Q

what happens if one fatty acid in a triglyceride is replaced by a phosphate group (PO4)

A

produces a phospholipid

417
Q

what is considered to be the good fatty acid

A

unsaturated cis

418
Q

pros of lipids not carbs

A 
stores double energy
doesnt store 2g of water  (like glycogen does per gram)
less dense
non polar
excellent heat insulation
waterproof
419
Q

what are considered to be bad fatty acids

A

trans fats, and those rich in saturated fatty acids

420
Q

BMI

A

weight
/
height squared

421
Q

what changes in sickle cell anaemia

A

glutamic acid is substituted by valine, causing severe changes to the structure of hemoglobin

422
Q

globular proteins

A

tend to play active roles in the cells metabolism. they conssit of complex polypeptide chains that can be linked to other chains to form large complex proteins. usually soluble in water because their hydrophobiv r groups are folded into the core of the molecyle, away from the surrounding water molecules

423
Q

fibrous proteins

A

usually made of long polypeptide chains where the hydrophobic r groups are exposed, making the molecule insoluble. often found in structural parts of organims,s such as tendons and skin

424
Q

what structures are lost in denaturation

A

secondary and tertiary. mor tertiary or quaternary hydrogen bonds between r groups of amino acids and amino groups of different groups are disrupted. active sites lost their shapes.

425
Q

what type of protein are enzymes

A

globular proteins

426
Q

how is induced fit possible

A

because of the flexibility of the protein molecules that make up the enzyme

427
Q

industrial enzymes

A

industry
environment
agriculture

428
Q

what is lactose

A

a naturally occuring disaccharide in dairy. lactase can break it down.

429
Q

what happens if you are lactose intolerant

A

lactose intolerant people can eat food that has had the enzyme lactase added, which breaks down lactose into its constituent monomers, glucsoe and galactose

430
Q

what are dna and rna composed of

A

a pentose sugar
phosphate group
nitrogenous base

431
Q

what does dna contain that rna doesnt

A

DEOXYribose (sugar)

432
Q

what is the formation of a new dna molecule called

A

replication

433
Q

when does replication occur

A

during s pahse

434
Q

what enzyme does the first step of dna replication

A

unwinding the coils to make the strands acccesible to enzymes is done by helicase by breaking hydrogen bonds between the bases.

435
Q

what enzyme does the second step of dna replication

A

DNA polymerase starts making new strands of DNA using the two old parent strands as templates

436
Q

what were the 3 ways dna replication could occur

A

dispersive
conservative
semi-conservative

437
Q

what did mehlson and stahl find dna to be

A

semi conservative meaning it alternated between 14N and 15N

438
Q

what is rna polymerase responsible for

A

seperating the dna strands of the dna helix as well as for joining the ribonucleotides together by phosphodiester bonds to form an mrna strand

439
Q

which dna stand is the sense strand

A

the one NOT transcribed

440
Q

is the sense or antisense strand complementary to the mrna molecule

A

the antisense strand

441
Q

which end of the trna molecule is 3’

A

the longer end

442
Q

what is the anticodon

A

the 3 bases where the amino acid attatches itself

443
Q

where does translation take place

A

cytoplasm of the cell

444
Q

in which order does translation occur in

A

5’ to 3’ direction

445
Q

the genetic code is…

A

degenerate

universal

446
Q

what does PCR allow

A

the rapid production of multiple copies of dna using TAQ dna polymerase

447
Q

insulin function

A

regualtes glucose uptake and the conversion of glucose to glycogen in the liver

448
Q

glucose undergoes glycolysis becoming

A

pyruvate

449
Q

pyruvaate can undergo anaerobic or aerobic resp…

A

anaerobic would undergo fermentation to become lactate or ethanol and CO2
aerobic would undergo

450
Q

where is the electront ransport chain

A

the inner membrane of the mitochondrial envelope

451
Q

how much atp does anaerboci resp generate

A

2

452
Q

why would you set up the respirometer in a water bath

A

to ensure temp does not affect pressure and hence volume of air in the system

453
Q

which pigments capture photon

A

chlorophyll a and b

454
Q

other pigments involved in phtoosynthesis

A

xanthophylls and carotenoids, reflecting yellow and orange light respectively

455
Q

what is the calvin cycle

A

name for the light independent reactions: a cycle of chemical reactions where CO2 is assimilated to make sugars.

456
Q

calvin cycle equation

A

CO2 + H20 –> carbohydrates + oxygen

457
Q

benefits of thin layer chromatography

A

same principle as paper but the stationary phase is usually silica gel, aluminum oxide or cellulose instead of paper. it gives a better result as well defined and well separated spots are obtained

458
Q

cell respiration def

A

the gradual and controlled release of energy by breaking down organic compounds to produce ATP ( Adenosine T ri P hosphate).

459
Q

each 6 carbon glucose is gradually broken down into

A

6 CO2 molecules

460
Q

what does an action spectrum record

A

the amount of photosynthesis at each wavelength

461
Q

where is the oxygen we breathe in from

A

the water used in photolysis reactions

462
Q

What is needed in photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide into organic molecules

A

ATP and hydrogen from the splitting of water.

463
Q

waht type of reaction is photosynthesis

A

anabolic

464
Q

waht cuases oxygen in the first 2700 million years of earth

A

cyanobacteria

465
Q

what could be the earleist occurance during dna replication

A

free nucelotides base pair to original polynucleotide

466
Q

methane vs water, bp vs freezing pt

A

methane’s bp is well above the freezing point of water

467
Q

From which molecule(s) is oxygen released into the air as a product of photosynthesis?

A

water only.

Oxygen is derived from the photolysis of water.

468
Q

How is oxygen produced during photosynthesis?

A

Water molecules are split with energy from light. Photolysis of water yields oxygen. The energy that is needed for this process is supplied by photons harvested by the chlorophyll reaction centres.

469
Q

Hemoglobin can transport oxygen through its unique conformation that is displayed through:

A

two alpha and two beta chains.
Whereas hemoglobin contains heme group, it is still composed of two alpha and two beta chains. This flexible structure gives it a great advantage in the process of oxygen transport throughout the human body, which renders answer #1 the only correct answer to the question.

470
Q

Mangrove trees live in swamps and saline coastal waters. These are harsh conditions in which aerobic respiration in the roots is difficult. One of the adaptations of mangrove trees to their environment is vertical roots called pneumatophores that grow upward out of the mud and water to function as the site of gas intake. What gas will be absorbed by pneumatophores?

A

oxygen.
In swamps and saline coastal waters, oxygen cannot penetrate the muddy and saline soil. Pneumatophores, also known as aerial roots, are erect side branches of the horizontal roots of mangrove trees that grow out of the mud to obtain oxygen from the air. They allow aerobic respiration to occur in the oxygen-deficient environment.

471
Q

what process happens in aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration?

A

glycolysis

472
Q

difference between absorption and action spectryum

A

The action spectrum represents the rate of photosynthesis at each wavelength of light while the absorption spectrum shows the percentage of light absorbed at each wavelength.

473
Q

Why is the action spectrum for photosynthesis similar to the absorption spectra of photosynthetic pigments?

A

Only wavelengths of light absorbed by pigments can be used in photosynthesis.

The absorption spectrum shows the range of wavelengths of visible light absorbed by plant pigments. It is these wavelengths that determine the rate of photosynthesis shown in the action spectrum.

IB Biology HL (15 decks)

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