1201-1400 Flashcards
What G protein is stimulated by activated rhodopsin?
Gt (transducin), which decreases cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) and closes the Na+ channels, causing nerve transmission
What are the vitamin K-dependent clotting factors?
2, 7, 9, and 10
What vitamin is connected to selenium (Se) metabolism?
Vitamin E
What is the activated form of vitamin E?
Alpha-tocopherol
What elements make up a nucleoside?
A base and a sugar
What is the most common methylated base?
Cytosine
DNA is replicated at what phase of the cell cycle?
S phase
At which end of DNA are new bases added?
3’ end
What keeps single-strand DNA (ssDNA) from re-annealing during DNA replication?
Single-strand (ss) binding protein
What enzyme is responsible for producing a single-strand (ss) cut in the DNA to relieve the coil tension?
Topoisomerase I (relaxase)
What two amino acids are found in high concentrations in the nucleosome?
- Arginine 2. Lysine
What three bases are pyrimidines?
- Cytosine 2. Uracil (only in RNA) 3. Thymidine
What enzyme creates a short sequence of RNA to start DNA replication?
Primase
What type of enzyme is reverse transcriptase?
RNA-dependent DNA polymerise
What is the direction of transcription?
5’ to 3’ direction
Where is the TATA box in located eukaryotes?
25 bases downstream (-25)(promoter)
What causes transcription to stop in eukaryotes?
The poly(A) site on the DNA
What protein binds to the promoter region in eukaryotes to initiate transcription?
TF II D (transcription factor)
What part of the 30S ribosome binds to the Shine-Dalgarno sequence?
16S subunit
What is the start codon for translation?
AUG
What is the enzyme that activates the amino acids for the tRNA?
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
What is needed to direct enzymes to a lysosome?
Phosphorylation of mannose residues
What cofactor is needed for lysyl oxidase?
Cu2+
What part of the 50S and 60S ribosomal subunit is needed for elongation?
Peptidyl transferase
In the lac operon: At which site is the repressor gene encoded?
I gene
To which site does the repressor protein bind in order to inhibit transcription?
Operator
What amplification technique is used to generate a larger amount of DNA?
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
What test is used to determine whether a gene is expressed?
Northern blotting
At what organ in the body is urea produced?
Liver
What regulatory proteins work during fetal development to ensure that cells become a specific cell type (If there is a defect here, there can be profound structural mutations.)?
Homeobox genes
What is the mode of inheritance in which a trait is seen in every generation and is passed on only by females?
Mitochondrial inheritance
What is the name for the process of going from mRNA to proteins?
Translation
What are the components of a nucleotide?
A base, a sugar, and a phosphate
What enzymes hydrolyze 3’-5’ phosphodiesterase bonds from the outside of the strand in?
Exonucleases
What type of organisms have monocistronic mRNA?
Eukaryotes
In collagen, every third amino acid is this amino acid.
Glycine
What form of continuous DNA, used in cloning, has no introns or regulatory elements?
c-DNA, when it is made from mRNA
What proteins stimulate a cell to enter the S phase?
Growth factors
At what pH is there no net charge on the structure?
pI (isoelectric point)
What complex of the ETC contains Cue+?
Complex 4
What two shuttles are needed to keep NAD+ in the reduced state?
Malate/aspartate and glycerol-3-phosphate shuttles
What vitamin is required for y-carboxylation of many Cat+-binding proteins?
Vitamin K
From where is the energy for gluconeogenesis derived?
Ã-Oxidation of fatty acids
What amino acid is broken down into N20, causing an increase in eGMP of smooth muscle resulting in vasodilatation?
Arginine
What hormone phosphorylates enzymes to decrease their activity?
Glucagon
Lack of what enzyme can lead to Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome through lack of activity in the HMP shunt?
Thiamine pyrophospate (TPP)
What enzyme found in the liver catalyzes glycerol to glycerol-3-phosphate?
Glycerol kinase
Which shuttle is used to bring fatty acyl CoA from the cytoplasm for ketogenesis?
Carnitine acyl CoA transferase II
Which enzyme is deficient in phenylketonuria (PKU)?
Phenylalanine hydroxylase
After approximately how many days of a prolonged fast does death occur in humans?
60 days
What is the cause of death?
The breakdown of the essential proteins of the heart and brain
All the carbons in a fatty acid are derived from what source?
Cytoplasmic acetyl CoA that left the mitochondria as citrate
What enzyme is deficient in alcaptonuria?
Homogentisic acid
In a diabetic patient, glucose is converted by aldose reductase to what?
Sorbitol (resulting in cataracts)
What glycolytic intermediate can be used to synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids?
DHAP
What glycolytic enzyme has a high Vmax high Km and low affinity for glucose?
Glucokinase
What is the main inhibitor of pyrnvate dehydrogenase?
Acetyl CoA (pyruvate to acetyl CoA)
What are the two substrate-level phosphorylations in glycolysis?
- Pyruvate kinase 2. Phosphoglycerate kinase
What are the eight liver-specific enzymes?
- Fructokinase 2. Glucokinase 3. Glycerol kinase 4. PEPCK 5. Pyruvate carboxylase 6. Galactokinase 7. Fructose-1,6-biphosphate 8. Glucose-6-phosphate
In what cycle does glucose go to the muscle, where it is converted to pyruvate and then into alanine before being taken back to the liver?
Alanine cycle
In what cycle does glucose go to the muscle, where it is converted to lactate, and then returned to the liver?
Cori cycle
What four substances increase the rate of gluconeogenesis?
- Glucagon 2. NADH 3. Acetyl CoA 4. ATP
What enzyme is deficient in a patient who presents with: Liver damage and severe hypoglycemia?
Aldolase B (hereditary fructose intolerance)
Jaundice, vomiting, lethargy, cat, galactosemia, and galactosuria?
Galactose 1-phosphate uridyltransferase
What three substances stimulate glycogenolysis?
- Cat+:calmodulin ratio 2. Epinephrine 3. Glucagon
What are the two inhibitors of complex I of the ETC?
- Rotenone 2. Amytai (barbiturates)
What are the five factors that constitute the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex?
- TPP 2. Lipoic acid 3. CoASH 4. FAD 5. NAD
What attaches to protons and allows them to enter into the mitochondria without going through the ATP-generating system?
24-Dinitrophenol
What are the two decarboxylation steps of the TCA cycle?
- Isocitrate dehydrogenase 2. a-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
What are the three inhibitors of complex IV of the ETC?
- Cyanide 2. CO 3. Azide
What three steps of the TCA cycle generate NADH?
- Malate dehydrogenase 2. Isocitrate dehydrogenase 3. a-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
What disease presents with weakness and cramps on exercise without an increase in blood lactate levels?
McArdle’s disease (muscle glycogen phosphorylase deficiency)
NADPH generated from the HMP shunt is used for what?
Fatty acid synthesis, nucleotide synthesis, and glutathione reductase
Is linolenic acid an omega-3 or -6 fatty acid?
Omega-3; linoleic is omega-6
Is the oxidative reaction of the HMP shunt reversible or irreversible?
Irreversible (G-6-PD and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase)
What disease presents with an enlarged liver and kidneys, dwarfism, hypoglycemia, acidosis, and hyperlipidemia?
Von Gierke’s disease (glucose 6-phosphatase deficiency)
At what three sites can the HMP shunt enter into glycolysis?
- Fructose-6-phosphate 2. Glucose-6-phosphate 3. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate 1
Deficiency in the liver glycogen phosphorylase enzyme is known as what?
Hers disease
What causes the lysis of red blood cells by oxidizing agents in a glucose-6- phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency?
The lack of glutathione peroxidase activity results in a decrease in NADPH production, leaving glutathione in the reduced state.
What disease presents with hepatomegaly and a normal EKG?
Glycogen storage disease, type III (Forbes disease, Cori disease)
What apoprotein is on the surface of LDL?
Apoprotein B-100
What carries cholesterol from the tissues back to the liver?
HDLs
What apoprotein mediates the uptake of remnants by the liver?
Apoprotein E
What is the complex needed for acetyl CoA carboxylase?
Biotin, ATP, and G02 (acetyl CoA to malonyl CoA)
What are the three tissues where TAGS are produced?
- Liver 2. Muscle 3. Adipose tissue
What delivers cholesterol to the tissues?
LDLs
What apoprotein is produced by the intestinal epithelium?
Apoprotein B-48
What carries TAGS to the peripheral tissues?
VLDLs
How many NADPHs are used per addition of each of acetyl CoA into a fatty acid chain?
2 NADPHs/acetyl CoA
What apoprotein activates lipoprotein lipase in the capillary epithelium to hydrolyze TAGS?
Apoprotein C-II
What apoproteins are on the surface of IDL?
Apoproteins B-100 and E
From which two substances are phospholipids made?
- DAGs 2. Phosphatidic acid
What apoproteins are on the surface of HDL?
Apoprotein A-I, C-II, and E
What is needed to produce a double bond in a fatty acid chain in the endoplasmic reticulum?
NADPH, O2, and cytochrome b5
What apoprotein activates lecithin cholesterol acyl transferase to esterify cholesterol from tissue?
Apoprotein A-I
What apoproteins are on the surface of VLDL?
Apoproteins B-100, C-II, and E
At the end of each round of Ã-oxidation, what is released?
Acetyl CoA, FADH, and NADH
What two enzymes are vitamin B12 dependent?
- Homocysteine methyl transferase 2. Methylmalonyl CoA transferase
What enzyme is blocked by disulfiram?
Aldehyde dehydrogenase
What hormone hydrolyzes TAGS to free fatty acids and glycerol?
Hormone-sensitive lipase
What enzyme is deficient in a patient 2 years of age or younger who presents with vomiting, lethargy, coma, hypoketosis, and hypoglycemia following a fast of more than 12 hours?
Medium-chain acyl dehydrogenase
What form of alcohol did the patient drink if he became blind as a result?
Methanol (wood alcohol)
What regulates the rate of ketone body formation?
The rate of Ã-oxidation
What intermediate enables propionyl CoA to enter into the TCA cycle?
Succinyl CoA
What sphingolipid is formed by the union of serine and palmitoyl CoA?
Sphingosine
What intermediate of cholesterol synthesis anchors proteins in the membranes and forms CoQ?
Farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP)
What is the complex needed for propionyl CoA carboxylase?
Biotin, ATP, and C02
What are the three ketone bodies?
- Acetoacetate 2. Acetone 3. Ã-hydroxybutyrate
What type of damage to the kidneys is caused by drinking ethylene glycol (antifreeze)?
Nephrotoxic oxylate stones
What is the only sphingolipid that contains choline and p04?
Sphingomyelin (lecithin also, but it is not a sphingolipid)
What is the order of fuel utilization in a prolonged fast?
- Glucose from liver glycogen 2. Glucose from gluconeogenesis 3. Body protein 4. Body fat
Sialic acid and amino sugars are needed to produce what sphingolipid?
Ganglioside
What vitamin is needed as a cofactor for decarboxylation and transaminase reactions?
Vitamin B6
What are the two ways that nitrogen can enter into the urea cycle?
- Aspartate 2. Carbomoyl PO4
What is the only enzyme in the body that uses N5 methyl folate?
Homocysteine methyl transferase
What enzyme deficiency will result in an increase in blood ammonia and an increase in uracil and orotate concentrations in both the blood and urine?
Ornithine transcarbamoylase (OTC) deficiency-also called ornithine carbamoyltransverase (OCT) deficiency
What amino acid is a precursor of the following substances: Serotonin?
Tryptophan
What amino acid is a precursor of the following substances: GABA?
Glutamate
What amino acid is a precursor of the following substances: Histamine?
Histidine
What amino acid is a precursor of the following substances: Creatine?
Glycine/arginine
What amino acid is a precursor of the following substances: NAD?
Tryptophan
What amino acid is a precursor of the following substances: N20?
Arginine
What enzyme deficiency will result in an increase in blood ammonia, but no increase in uracil concentrations?
Carbamoyl-phosphate synthetase
What are the glucogenic and ketogenic amino acids?
Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan, Isoleucine, Threonine
What are the three diseases of sphingolipids?
- Niemann-Pick disease 2. Gaucher’s disease 3. Tay-Sachs disease
What type of jaundice is seen in Rotor’s syndrome?
Conjugated (direct) hyperbilirubinemia
What is the pyrimidine intermediate that joins PRPP?
Orotic acid
What three amino acids are used to synthesize the purine ring?
- Glycine 2. Aspartate 3. Glutamine
What enzyme is blocked by hydroxyurea?
Ribonucleotide reductase
What is the primary end product of purine synthesis?
IMP
What enzyme is deficient in hereditary protoporphyria?
Ferrochelatase
What are the two precursors of heme?
- Glycine 2. Succinyl-CoA
What enzyme is blocked by 5-FU?
Thymidylate synthetase
What disease has a genetically low level of UDPglucuronate transferase, resulting in elevated free unconjugated bilirubin?
Gilbert’s syndrome
What form of bilirubin can cross the blood-brain barrier?
Unconjugated free bilirubin
What substrates are needed to produce carbamoyl P04 (de novo pyrimidine synthesis)?
Glutamine, CO2, and ATP via carbamoyl PO4 synthetase II
What enzyme is blocked by methotrexate/trimethoprim?
Dihydrofolate reductase
What type of jaundice is seen in Dubin-Johnson syndrome?
Conjugated (direct) hyperbilirubinemia (It is a transport defect.)
What form of bilirubin is carried on albumin?
Unconjugated (indirect)
In what disease is there a genetic absence of UDPglucuronate transferase, resulting in an increase in free unconjugated bilirubin?
Crigler-Najjar syndrome
What enzyme is deficient in acute intermittent porphyria?
Uroporphyrinogen I synthetase
What enzyme is deficient in congenital erythropoietic porphyria?
Uroporphyrinogen III cosynthase
What amino acid has a pKa of 13?
Arginine
What two amino acids have a pKa of 10?
- Lysine 2. Tyrosine
What two amino acids have a pKa of 4?
- Aspartic acid 2. Glutamic acid
What disease has a genetic deficiency in adenosine deaminase?
Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)
What type of charge does the molecule have if the pH is greater than the pI (isoelectric point)?
A net negative charge
In what disease is there a deficiency in hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT)?
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
What is the end product of purine catabolism?
Uric acid
What enzyme is deficient in selective T cell immunodeficiency?
Purine nucleoside phosphorylase
What substrate builds up in Tay-Sachs disease?
Ganglioside GM2
On a Lineweaver-Burke plot, what type of binding has both plots crossing the y-axis in the same spot?
Competitive, reversible inhibition (Vmax is the same, increase Km)
What toxin ADP-ribosylates via GS protein to increase CAMP?
Cholera toxin
What vitamin derivatives are used for growth and differentiation of epithelium for reproductive and embryonic development?
Vitamin A
Light causes isomerization of what in the eyes?
11-cis-retinal to traps-retinal (activated rhodopsin)
What are the two actions of calcitonin?
- Increases Ca2+ excretion from the kidney 2. Increases bone mineralization
What causes an increase in bone mineralization and Cat+, as well as P04 absorption from the GI tract and kidney tubules?
Vitamin D
On the Lineweaver-Burke plot, what type of binding has both plots crossing the x-axis in the same spot?
Noncompetitive, reversible binding (decrease in Vmax; Km is same)
What is the maximum rate possible with a given amount of enzyme?
Vmax
To what are intracellular glucose levels inversely related?
cAMP levels
Does a saturated fatty acid have double bonds?
No; unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds
What two factors cause PTH to be secreted?
- A decrease in blood Ca2+ 2. A decrease in PO4 concentrations
What in the human genome differs in each individual that can serve as an identification marker?
RFLP-restriction fragment length polymorphism
What test is used to identify HIV-positive patients?
ELISA-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
What toxin ADP-ribosylates via G to increase cAMP?
Pertussis toxin
What vitamin is essential for normal Ca2+ and P04 metabolism?
Vitamin D
What vitamin is deficient in a person who has impaired taste, night blindness, and increased risk for having an abortion?
Vitamin A
What bond does an endonuclease cleave?
3’, 5’ internal phosphodiesterase bond
What protein separates base pairs and unwinds the DNA at the replication fork?
Helicase (It is an ATP-dependent enzyme.)
What vitamin deficiency would cause liver necrosis and red blood cell fragility?
Vitamin E deficiency
What protein catalyzes the formation of the last phosphodiester bond (PDE) between the Okazaki fragments to produce a continuous strand?
DNA ligase
What is the hypochromic effect?
Increased absorption as DNA goes from double stranded to single stranded
What technique uses DNA for analysis?
Southern blotting
In what direction is a new DNA strand made?
5’ to 3’
What enzyme has a 5’ to 3’ synthesis activity and a 3’ exonuclease activity?
DNA polymerase III
What enzyme makes a double-stranded cut through DNA, needs ATP, and introduces negative supercoiling?
Topoisomerase II
What eukaryotic DNA polymerase is used for: DNA replication?
a- and delta-polymerase
What eukaryotic DNA polymerase is used for: Replication in mitochondria?
gamma-Polymerase
What eukaryotic DNA polymerase is used for: DNA repair?
Ã-Polymerase
What is the orientation of the gene sequence strand?
5’ to 3’ (same as RNA)
What is the location of the TATA box in procaryotes?
10 bases downstream
What binds to the promoter region in procaryotes?
Sigma factor
What enzyme has a 5’ to 3’ synthesis of the Okazaki fragments, 3’ exonuclease activity, and 5’ exonuclease activity?
DNA polymerase I
What type of mutation has the same amino acid coded for, but with a different codonsequence?
Silent mutation
At what position of the anticodon does the “wobble” hypothesis occur?
Position 1 of the anticodon (the 5’ end)- which is the same as position 3 of the codon (the 3’ end)
What are the three “stop” codons?
- UAA 2. UAG 3. UGA
What stops transcription in procaryotes?
Rho factor or a hairpin loop
What are the three post-transcriptional modifications?
- 7-methyl guanine cap on the 5’ end 2. Addition of the poly(A) tail to the 3’ end 3. Removal of introns
In what type of mutation is a different codon added, resulting in formation of a different amino acid?
Missense mutation
What amino acid is attached to the 3’ end of the tRNA in eukaryotes?
Methionine
What enzyme makes tRNA and the SsRNA?
RNA polymerase III
What structure of a protein describes the interaction among subunits?
Quaternary structure
What two amino acids require vitamin C for hydroxylation?
- Proline 2. Lysine
What is determined by the secondary structure of an amino acid?
The folding of an amino acid chain
Which mutation has a stop codon put in place of the previous codon?
Nonsense mutation
What amino acid is attached to the 3’ end of the tRNA in prokaryotes?
f-Methionine
What enzyme makes rRNA (barring the 5s subunit)?
RNA polymerase I
What is the site of action of cycloheximide?
Peptidyl transferase (60S)
What translation factor is blocked by erythromycin?
Elongation factore G (EF-G)
What is the charge of the molecule if the pH is less than the pI (isoelectric point)?
A net positive charge