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10/25 quiz Flashcards

1
Q

what are the two modes of reproduction?

A

sexual and asexual

sexual is far more common

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2
Q

what is sexual reproduction?

A

gametes are formed in meiosis and each contains 1/2 of parent’s genetic material -> one full set of chromosomes = haploid

sperm + egg = zygote, which is diploid

new individual develops from zygote

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3
Q

why is sexual reproduction costly?

A

energy consumption
- find mate (physically searching)
- get mate (courtship, elaborate appearance, etc)

cost of meiosis

vulnerability of predation while attracting mate

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4
Q

what is the cost of meiosis?

A

each offspring only carries one half of a given parent’s genes

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5
Q

why is asexual reproduction technically more productive than sexual reproduction?

A

fitness is measured by amount of genes passed down to next generation

asexual passes down 100%, sexual only passes down 50%

AS should be favored by NS

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6
Q

why doesn’t NS select for asexual reproduction?

A

sexual allows for genetic variability of offspring, can better survive changing conditions

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7
Q

genetic variation is a form of “___ ___”

A

bet hedging

not putting all their “genetic eggs into one basket”

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8
Q

can organisms reproduce both sexually and asexually?

A

yes, a planarian changes based on times of environmental stress

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9
Q

how is genetic variability related to parasitic virulence?

A

GV is needed to deal with continuously changing virulence

parasites often have large populations and short generations time, allowing them to evolve rapidly

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10
Q

what is the Red Queen Hypothesis?

A

how organisms are in a constant “evolutionary arms race” to simply persist in the presence of continuously evolving parasites/disease

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11
Q

what are the different types of sex changes?

A

simple life cycle -> develop sex early in life and remain constant

sequential hermaphroditism -> sex changes during life span

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12
Q

what does protandrous mean?

A

an individual is first male and then female

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13
Q

what does protogynous mean?

A

an individual is first female and then male

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14
Q

when is protandry favored?

A

when fecundity is higher in older females

good for if resources are scarce early in life, males typically need fewer

save energy and be a small male until large enough to be a female and invest energy into egg production

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15
Q

when is protogyny favored?

A

when fecundity is higher in older males

can start small as a female and be inconspicuous to predators and then, once big, avoid predators better and compete for access to females more effectively

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16
Q

what is an example of protandry?

A

clownfish

next biggest female takes over if dominant one dies

want to invest in being a growing male at the beginning and then switch to female later

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17
Q

example of protogyny

A

bluestreak wrasse - one male has multiple females, but when one dies the next largest female steps up to be the male

male gets to protect territory and mate with all females

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18
Q

what is senescence?

A

an increase in mortality and decline in fecundity

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19
Q

why do organisms senesce?

A

accumulation of physical/molecular defects

evolution of repair mechanisms in old age could have costs to earlier survival

selection on changes in survival and fecundity at old age are weak - not a super strong advantage to survive past peak fecundity age

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20
Q

what are the costs and benefits of earlier age of first reproduction?

A

B: increased reproductive output

C: lower parental survivorship

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21
Q

what are the costs and benefits to reproductive effort?

A

B: more effort -> more offspring

C: lower survivorship of parent and offspring if too much energy put in

think of european magpies with optimal 7 eggs

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22
Q

there is a ___ relationship between offspring size and number

A

negative

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23
Q

how does reproducing later in life help in organisms with indeterminate growth?

A

investing in growth earlier in life allows you to make more eggs when you become reproductively active

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24
Q

what is one issue with reproducing later in life?

A

if you die before then, your fitness is 0

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25
what does resource allocation for growth and reproduction depend on?
predation risk of the environment
26
what does semelparous mean?
organism reproduces once when conditions are appropriate will die after reproducing
27
when is semelparous reproduction favored?
when the cost of reproduction is high or when reproduction can be timed to occur at favorable times
28
what does iteroparous mean?
an organism reproduces many times
29
what is an example of a semelparous organism?
cicada or salmon
30
what is the fast-slow continuum?
concept to describe life history strategies based on growth, reproduction, and survival
31
what is the fast portion of the f-s continuum?
r-selected: constantly growing rapid growth and early reproduction shorter life span and often many offspring little to no parental care
32
what is the slow portion of f-s continuum?
k-selected: have to live within carrying capacity slower growth and delayed reproduction longer lifespan and often fewer offspring high parental care investment
33
what do K-selection life history species prioritize?
traits that increase competitive abilities - want to fit within carrying capacity
34
what do r-selective species prioritize?
traits that increase r
35
what is r-selection mainly used by?
pioneering species in habitats with high disturbance
36
what is K-selection mainly used by?
climax communities with species near carrying capacity
37
in reality, most species are ... r and K selection
in between extremes of
38
when is r-selection favored?
unpredictable environments
39
when is K-selection favored?
in predictable environments
40
annual plants
produce many seeds at once, hold nothing back but must grow quickly to complete lifecycle in one growing season risk of not growing in a bad season
41
perennial plants
can grow and store energy over multiple seasons must survive winter and can't allocate as much energy to seed production
42
what is an ecological community?
a group of interacting species that co-occur in a particular place
43
what are important factors to an ecological community?
species richness (how many), evenness (how common) and composition (what are they doing and how are they interacting)
44
what determines the species composition of a community?
climate/abiotic factors (environmental tolerance) environmental complexity (niche space) competition and biotic interactions chance events (also long-term events, but not focusing on these)
45
what does greater environmental complexity allow for?
greater complexity of inhabiting species thinkl-l invertebrates and trees
46
how can the physical environment impact community composition?
directly -> environmental tolerances indirectly -> biotic interactions
47
what is an example of an indirect biotic interaction related to the effects of the physical environment on community composition?
the presence of flowers impacting the presence of bees w/o flowers, bees won't live there
48
what are the types of interactions between species?
mutualism communsalism/facilitation predation/herbivory/parasitism/disease ammensalism competition no interactions
49
what is mutualism?
when both organisms benefit from the interaction
50
what is commensalism/facilitation?
when one organism benefits and the other is indifferent one species increases the probability that another is occurring in the community
51
what are predatory/herbivory/parasitic/disease interactions?
when one organism benefits and the other is harmed
52
what is no interaction?
neither organism is effected, both are indifferent
53
what is ammensalism?
when one organism is indifferent but the other is harmed
54
what is competition?
when both organisms are harmed by the interaction
55
what is an example of mutualism?
hummingbirds receive nectar from flowers (energy) and the flowers being pollinated by the hummingbirds' movement
56
what is an example of facilitation?
kelp forests kelp just grows, but it provides a habitat for other species at the same time
57
what are keystone species and ecosystem engineers?
examples of facilitation - species with a significant role in determining community structure we typically notice the importance of their presence after they're gone
58
what is an example of a keystone species?
wolves in Yellowstone national park (helped with species maintenance, especially with elk)
59
what is an example of an ecosystem engineer?
beavers - build dams that help prevent flooding and establish habitats for fish
60
what does symbiosis mean?
umbrella term for species interactions
61
what is neutral symbiosis?
commensalism - some partners benefit but none suffer
62
what is beneficial commensalism?
mutualism - all partners benefit; obligate or facultative
63
what is exploitative symbiosis?
one partner benefits and other suffers
64
what are obligate mutualisms?
the interaction is required by both species orchids with a particular pollinator
65
what are facultative mutualisms?
occur in moments of opportunity but can survive w/o honey bees w/ flowers
66
what is an example of a predatory/herbivory/parasitism/disease interaction?
pathogens in host
67
what is an example on ammensalism?
stepping on a bug
68
what is an example of a competition interaction?
seals fighting over access to females, expends energy for both individuals
69
what are the two types of herbivory?
predator and parasite
70
what is predator herbivory?
eating the whole plant
71
what is parasite herbivory?
only eating part of a plant
72
what do carnivores do?
consume whole individual (or more)
73
what do parasitoids do?
consume whole individual (or more)
74
what do parasites do in species interactions?
consume part of host one parasite won't consume the whole host
75
what are the three types of mutualism?
trophic, defensive, and dispersive
76
what is trophic mutualism?
partners in obtaining energy ex: bacteria in gut, get energy from breaking down cellulose that the host otherwise couldn't digest
77
what are defensive mutualisms?
food/shelter in return for defense ex: ant defending aphid bc aphid feeds ant
78
what are dispersive mutualisms?
food in return for dispersal - pollination or seed dispersal ex: bees or seed-eating birds
79
how are the plants in the salt marsh an example of facilitation and ecosystem "engineers"
species that can grow in the salty water block/buffer further back species from the tides and salinity, making conditions more favorable for them
80
mutualism in aquatic environment
corals have high productivity due to mutualism btwn polyp and unicellular algae algae provide carbohydrates through photosynthesis and secrete 90-99% of fixed carbon to coral polyps shelter algae and produce ammonium as a waste product, which is a nutrient to the algae
81
parasites play a role in ...
maintenance of genetic diversity sexual reproduction female mate choice regulation of host populations
82
how is disease different from predation?
is doesn't necessarily kill its victim after infection, victim often becomes immune disease is much smaller than victim, opposite w/ predators disease organisms aren't often independently mobile
83
what are important characteristics of disease population dynamics?
virulence: how quickly the population grows within a host transmission rate: how the disease moves between hosts rate of spread: host movement (migration and dispersal)
84
how can a disease can modify host behaviors to induce transmission
sneezing/coughing rubbing eyes/scratching pustules induced excretion biting (rabies)
85
what are factors that limit population growth?
density-independent competition (both inter and intraspecific) predation (herbivory, parasitism, disease)
86
what is coral reef bleaching?
due to environmental stress, corals expel algae even though it is harmful in the long run, they can't maintain them anymore
87
two forms of competition
inter and intraspecific
88
two forms of interspecific competition
interference and exploitative
89
how did arthur tansley use the common garden experiment?
to test interactions between closely related species
90
what were the results of arthur tansley's common garden experiment?
both plant species grew best in their natural soil but were able to grow a bit in the opposing one when in combination, the native plant grew best in its own soil with few of the foreign plant succeeding
91
what did tansley's experiment demonstrate?
the effect of an organism's environment and competition
92
why did the gazelle population decrease after the wildebeest population grew?
the gazelle population's carrying capacity changed
93
what effect can species a have on species b if they are in the same habitat?
the presence or absence of species a can determine the p/a of species b due to competition between the two both can persist, but one may be better at it and out compete or interfere with the other
94
___ conditions can affect competition
environmental
95
how can past competition impact the present?
it can influence present species distributions
96
what is a resource?
anything consumed/used by organisms
97
what are examples of resources?
water, food, space, shelter
98
what is a limiting resource?
a resource that is in short enough supply that the amount available begins to impact population growth
99
what is a non-limiting resource?
a resource that is plentiful enough that increasing it wouldn't increase population growth
100
lower availability of resources leads to...
lower population growth rates
101
what is the definition of competition?
any use or defense of a resource by one individual that reduces the availability of that resource to other individuals
102
what is intraspecific competition?
within a species species has a negative effect on itself
103
what is interspecific competition?
between species
104
what mathematical model do we use to calculate intraspecific competition?
a rearrangement of the logistic equation very similar to carrying capacity
105
what mathematical model do we use to calculate interspecific competition?
a modified version of the logistic equation that integrates intensity of competition and the population size of the other species
106
how are competing species related?
they are functions of each other as species a increases, there will be a decrease in growth rate of species b, and vice versa
107
what happens to intraspecific competition at high population densities?
competition is strong
108
what does intraspecific competition do for population size?
regulates it
109
what does intraspecific competition do in terms of selection?
leads to evolution by natural selection and sexual selection because mates are a resource
110
what does interspecific competition help determine?
which species can coexist
111
what does interspecific competition help regulate?
each species and the ones around it
112
what can interspecific competition lead to?
extinction of a species
113
what is exploitation?
indirect interspecific competition a reduction in growth rate due to use of a shared resource
114
what is interference?
direct interspecific competition a reduction in growth rate due to active interactions between two species
115
in exploitative competition, one species ... of a resource required by another
reduces the abundance
116
in interference competition, one species ... to a resource required by another
denies or reduces access
117
what is an example of a behavior that demonstrates interference competition?
birds that eat fruit off trees attacking other fruit-eating birds that approach fruit tree but being indifferent to non-fruit-eating birds defensive of fruit tree
118
what is apparent competition?
the relative ability of two species to tolerate an external pressure competition mediated by predators/parasites/disease
119
what is an example of apparent competition?
tree frogs surviving poorly when all three frog species exist together in the absence of predators with few predators: tree frogs survive a bit better with multiple predators: tree frogs survive best
120
what is the competitive exclusion principle?
two species cannot coexist indefinitely on the same limiting resource keyword: LIMITING
121
limiting resources can occur ...
only part time/seasonally according to body size, age, etc. (ex: only competing as juveniles)
122
limiting resources become more limiting with more competitors, this leads to ___ ___ effects
density dependent
123
when can competing species coexist?
when they have different niches
124
the greater the niche overlap between species, the...
stronger competition will be
125
what is a fundamental niche?
includes all the resources a species CAN use neglects species interactions
126
what is a realized niche?
the resources a species actually uses given competition by other species is narrower than the fundamental niche
127
example of fundamental and realized niches
barnacles one species can inhabit all of the space (fundamental niche), but sticks to top bc of other species (realized niche) other species can only survive in lower area, stays within its fundamental and realized niche
128
when there are limiting resources, we can model which species will win based on those species'...
carrying capacities

bio 220 (11 decks)

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