1 - Challenges to the restored order Flashcards
in 1830, how was Italy organised
1815 treaty of vienna restored borders of states after the disruption of the Napoleonic wars
no uniformity to the political geography
piedmont in 1830
ruled by house of Savoy
absolutist state with a strong army and effective civil service (poverty still exists)
charles albert becomes king in 1831
lombardy in 1830
ruled by Austrian officials acting in the name of the emperor
military strongholds (Quadrilateral) in the fertile Po Valley
Papal States in 1830
umbria, the marches and romagna
dominated central italy
ruled by Head of the Catholic Church (who lived in Rome). he had temporal power and no significant army so relied on other nations. After 1815, Austrian troops stationed here.
Venice in 1830
annexed by Austria in the 1815 Treaty of Vienna
(also called the Republic of St Mark)
central duchies in 1830
modena, parma and tuscany
independent states but firmly under Austrian influence - rulers were close to the Austrian emperor (e.g. Tuscany’s Grand Duke Ferdinand III in 1815 was the emperor’s brother)
naples in 1830
ruled by Bourbon family.
poorest region, with naples being the largest italian city (400,000 people).
in the countryside, the social structure was unchanged from medieval times.
any liberal projects undertaken by the french were abandoned in 1815 (e.g. constitution)
what did Luigi Settembrini say
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies - “no state in Europe is in worse condition”
national movements in the 1820s
very limited
there only existed groups who had serious grievances against the reintroduced rule. There were uprisings in Naples/Sicily/Piedmont in 1820-1 but did not ask for national change/challenge Austria.
Carbonari
“charcoal burners”
committed to the people’s rights and were open to using violence
strongest in Naples, where it had 60,000 members
causes of the 1830-2 revolutions
many italian revolutionaries fled to france after 1820-1 failed. some took part in the July Days (1830) uprisings where Charles X was overthrown and replaced by Louis Phillipe.
Italians hoped the French would support similar uprisings.
1830-2 revolutions - where?
mainly Modena and Papal States
1830-2 - Modena: who led?
enrico misley (academic and carbonari member)
1830-2 - Modena: what happened?
enrico misley was a friend of the Duke of Modena (Francesco IV) and he offered him the position of King of Italy in return for support.
2 days before the uprising was planned, Francesco had Ciro Menotti (one of the main members) arrested and he fled to Vienna to get Metternich’s support.
He returned with an Austrian army and the revolutionaries were crushed.
who was arrested in the Modena 1830-2 uprisings
Ciro Menotti (one of the most important conspiracy members) was arrested by Duke Francesco IV
when was the Modena uprising within the 1830-2 period
Feb 1831
Austrian army came in March 1831
Modena 1830-2 - Austrian army
arrived March 1831
after crushing the revolution, many members were executed
1830-2 - Papal States: who urged the uprising?
Menotti
mainly supported by liberals who wanted to challenge the clerical state and return to the secular napoleonic times
in the papal states 1831, who was elected?
reactionary church leader was elected Pope - Gregory XVI
1830-2 - Papal States: who LED the uprising and what did they do?
revolutionary army led by Colonel Sercognani
captured Ancona and Perugia
set up a provisional government in Bologna
Papal States 1831 provisional gov
bologna
issued a constitution and an elected assembly
not a particularly radical constitution, but it was a threat to metternich.
because the papal constitution was a threat, what did Austria do 1831?
austrian forces took bologna
later revolts that year led to Austrian and French intervention in early 1832
reasons for the failure of 1830-2
- failed to attract foreign support (mainly french)
- demands for liberalism went against austrian beliefs
- no unity
- troppau protocol
what did the French minister say in 1831
“the blood of Frenchmen belongs to France” - wouldn’t intervene to help other countries revolt
troppau protocol
the great powers had the right to intervene to crush any revolution in Europe
since 1820
the british and the french didn’t necessarily agree but didn’t want to challenge austria’s responsibility to keep political stability
1830-2 revolutions failure - lack of unity
- no communication between regions to help support one another
- parochial ambitions
- narrow social base (exclusive secret societies and no broad support as their aims were constitutional, not for social change)
why did the 1830-2 revolutions not attract the masses
not protesting for social change - only constitutional change
revolutionaries were usually part of exclusive secret societies
risorgimento roots
go back to the roman empire when the peninsula was ‘united’
name 2 writers of the risorgimento
dante and machiavelli
thought of italy as a cultural identity
when was the term risorgimento first used
1775
to mean national identity
writers such as _____ talked about Italy as a whole and the Risorgimento as a moral revival
alfieri
denina
early writers of the risorgimento (e.g. Alfieri and Denina) had what problem
only small audience - upper class
first risorgimento revoultions
strengthened by events in France - changing to a political revival
italian jacobins were involved in plots to overthrow governments in the late 1790s
linguistic divisions
italy was a patchwork of languages/regional dialects - the modern italian was Tuscan and only spoken in Florence (630,000 used it out of 27 million)
illiteracy was high - 2/3
what did metternich say about italy
that it was ‘mere geography’
common language in journals
Il Poletecnico in Milan
ran 1839-45
shared culture in the educated classes
creation of national organisations
Congreso Degli Scienziata held meetings across Italy 1839-47
fostered a moderate nationalist opinion and often had a political edge to their meetings
Tuscan Italian used as language
tuscan italian becoming more popular
D’Azelgio started writing in tuscan italian
started to become the conversational language of the upper class (instead of French)
Verdi’s Nabuco
first performed 1842 in Milan
included the chorus of the Hebrew slaves - mirrored repression of Italians
his work became linked with anti-Austrian sentiments with performances often causing violent outbreaks
problem with Verdi
only for milanese nationalist middle class
not representative of the majority of Milan, let alone itlay
largest secret society
carbonari
name another secret society
Adelfi - initially a strong anti-french society which changed into The Society of the Sublime Perfect masters (main aim to destroy Austrian rule and set up a democratic republic)
led by Bhonarroti - an experienced revolutionary
when did secret societies start
to protest against the french dominance in italy during the napoleonic period
after 1815, members instead plotted against the restored governments
aims of secret societies
generally to reject absolutism and promote the people’s rights
who joined secret societies
those who lost out in the restoration - e.g. purged army officers/civil servants
good thing about secret societies
kept revolutionary spirit alive even if change didn’t happen
economic divisions and social probs: land
soil quality in south was inferior and crippled with malaria
‘latifundia’ system was feudal and people preferred napoleonic system
common land sold in 1830s/40s
common land being sold
1830s-40s
many depended on land for fuel and food
by 1865, a quarter of a million acres had been sold
sold to local administration officers/mayors who exploited the land
economic divisions and social probs: industrial development
- limited growth as Italy relied on britain for coal imports, the Appenine mountains were a transport barrier and economies were localised
- 1847 depression made urban centres suffer as they had no broad industrial base (only textiles)
- south - virtually no industrialisation as there were few entrepreneurs with skills/capital to invest in the few skilled workers. mainly artisan.
in 1844, there were only ___ industrial workers
114,000 in Piedmont
GDP per head
rose in the north/central italy only 0.5% a year between 1830-60
industrial development in south
limited, as few entrepreneurs had the skill/capital to invest
railways built in naples in 1830s
localised economies
caused by political divisions
post-1815, trade tariffs were reimposed and this reinforced localism
economic divisions and social probs: transport
- driving force for industrial change was railway
- first railway was in naples and completed 1839
- compared to britain, italy was underdeveloped. Its lack of excess water meant little canal development
poverty in the south acted as a barrier for..
industrial/agricultural development
e..g in the southern region Apulia, the development of an emerging olive oil industry was stunted by lack of modern transport system
localised transport
good - in 1860, over 5/6 of villages in Naples were connected by tracks rather than roads
economic divisions and social probs: rich/poor
- any political change came from the upper classes who wanted to benefit from selling land
- great social division - most of the population across north/south lived in abject poverty
- increase in population to over 24 million meant unemployment and rising food costs (most farming was subsistence so relied on foreign imports).
economic divisions and social probs: famine
most food production was subsistence, so relied on foreign grain imports.
periodic famines in the mid1840s and 1853
the peasants lived on a diet of maize, which often caused vitamin deficiencies such as pellagra
economic divisions and social probs: disease
cholera outbreaks were common in south
between 1835-7, 27,000 died in Palermo alone
economic divisions and social probs: wood
increasing demand for wood (railways/ship building)
caused widespread deforestation and landslides
leading to swamps (exacerbating the problem of malaria)
economic divisions and social probs: urbanisation
- people drawn to towns because of potential work
- by 1860, Turin’s population had multiplied ten times over and was 170,000
economic divisions and social probs: church influence decreasing
pre-1815, the church had been the main charity organisation. but during napoleon, mainly religious buildings were closed and only 400 were restored by 1821/lots of land sold.
the state became more involved with poor relief (e.g. Piedmont’s first workhouse 1836)
economic divisions and social probs: church CONTINUING influence
- close to 100% catholic population
- maintained social control in rural areas
- continued charity, even if it was lessened
