(1) Anatomy 101 - Chapter 1 Flashcards
● Science that deals with the form and structure of all organisms
● Literally means to cut apart
Anatomy
○ Study of the form and relations (relative positions) of the structures of the body that can be seen with the unaided
Gross (macroscopic) Anatomy
○ Study of the structures of various species of animals, with particular emphasis on those characteristics that aid in classification
Comparative anatomy
○ Study of developmental anatomy, covering the period from conception to birth
Embryology
○ Study of tissues and cells that can be seen only with the aid of a microscope
Histology (microscopic anatomy)
○ Deals with portions of cells and tissues as they are visualized with the aid of the electron microscope
Ultrastructural cytology
a term frequently used in reference to structures seen in electron micrographs
Fine structure
○ A study of anatomy through a systematic approach
Systemic anatomy
suffix added to the root word referring to the system to name the study
-ology (branch of knowledge or science)
Practical Names?
○ Function (i.e. adductor muscle of the thigh)
○ Position relative to other similar structure (i.e. superficial inguinal ring)
○ Location (i.e. infraorbital foramen)
○ Appearance or form (i.e. greater curvature of the stomach
○ Relate the structure to a person, usually the person who first described the structure (e.g. canal of Schlemm)
Eponymous names
Because eponyms are useless from a practical standpoint, what ? discourages their use
Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria
towards the head
Cranial
towards the tail
Caudal
are directional terms used in reference to features of the head
Rostral and caudal
toward the nose
rostral
an imaginary plane passing through the body so as to divide the body into equal right and left halves
Median plane
any plane parallel to the median plane
Sagittal plane
The median plane is sometimes called the?
midsagittal plane
at right angles to the median plane and divides the body into cranial and caudal segments
Transverse plane
○ At right angles to both the median plane and transverse planes
○ Divides the body into dorsal (upper) and ventral (lower) segments
Horizontal plane
adjective meaning close to or toward the median plane
Medial
means away from the median plane
Lateral
toward or beyond the backbone or vertebral column
Dorsal
the noun referring to the dorsal portion or back
Dorsum
away from the vertebral column or toward the midabdominal wall
Ventral
indicate proximity to the center of an anatomical structure
Deep and internal
refer to proximity to the surface of the body
Superficial and external
relatively close to a given part, usually the vertebral column, body or center of gravity. Generally used in reference to an extremity of limb
Proximal
farther from the vertebral column, and generally used in reference to portions of an extremity
Distal
suffix used to form an adverb from any of the named directional terms, indicating movement in the direction of or toward
-ad
refers to the flexor or caudal surface when describing the thoracic limb (forelimb)
Palmar
refers to the caudal surface when describing the pelvic limb (hindlimb)
Plantar
used in reference to the digits to mean toward the functional axis of the limb
Axial
decreases the angle of a joint, as when the elbow or finger is bent
Flexion
increases the angle of a joint, as when the elbow or finger is straightened
Extension
extends a joint beyond a linear or straight configuration, so that the angle of the joint is extended beyond 180 degrees
Hyperextension (dorsiflexion)
moves a body part toward the median plane, as when a limb is tucked under the body
Adduction
moves a body part away from the median plane, as when a limb is pulled to the side
Abduction
moves a structure cranially or rostrally, or moves it away from the central body, a when the tongue is projected from the mouth
Protraction
moves a structure back toward the body, as when the tongue is replaced in the mouth
Retraction
moves a structure dorsally, as when the shoulder is shrugged or the eyelid is opened
Elevation
moves a structure ventrally, as when the eyelid is closed
Depression
rotates the pelvic limb so that the plantar/caudal surface faces medially (similar to supination)
Inversion
rotates the pelvic limb so that the plantar/caudal surface faces laterally or caudally (similar to pronation)
Eversion
describes an essentially circular movement of a part (rather than a joint) around its long axis, as when the head of the humerus rotates in the glenoid cavity of the scapula
Rotation
described a combined movement, involving both flexion/extension and abduction/adduction.
Circumduction
refers to a position in which the dorsal aspect of the body or any extremity is uppermost
Prone
refers to the act of turning toward a prone position
Pronation
refers to the position in which the ventral aspect of the body or palmar or plantar aspect of an extremity is uppermost
Supine
refers to the act of turning toward a supine position
Supination
smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s processes
Cells
Cells three main parts:
○ Cytoplasm
○ Nucleus
○ Cell membrane
group of specialized cells
Tissue
made up by cells that specialize in holding structures
Connective tissue
group of tissues that work together for overall function
Organs
group of organs that participate in a common enterprise
Organ system
cover the surface of the body, line body cavities and form glands
Epithelial tissues
support and bind other tissues together and from which the formed elements of the blood are derived (bone marrow)
Connective tissues
specialize in contracting
Muscle tissues
conduct impulses from one part of the body to another
Nervous tissues
Epithelial Tissues
● Classified as?
simple (composed of single-layer) or stratified (many layered)
● Classified as simple (composed of single-layer) or stratified (many layered)
● Further subdivided according to the shape of the individual cells within it
○ Squamous - platelike
○ Cuboidal - cubic
○ Columnar - cylindrical
○ Pseudostratified columnar
Epithelial Tissues
○ Consists of thin, platelike cells
○ Much expanded in two directions but have little thickness
○ The edges are joined somewhat like a mosaic tile covering a floor
○ A layer of this tissue has little tensile strength and is found only as a covering layer for stronger tissues
○ Found where a smooth surface is required to reduce friction
○ e.g. covering of viscera and the linings of body cavities and blood vessels
Simple squamous epithelium
○ Approximately equal in all dimensions
○ Found in some ducts and in passageways in the kidneys
Cuboidal epithelial cells
○ Cylindrical
○ Arranged somewhat like the cells in a honeycomb
○ Some have whiplike projections called cilia extending from the free extremity
Columnar epithelial
Columnar epithelial
○ Cylindrical
○ Arranged somewhat like the cells in a honeycomb
○ Some have whiplike projections called ? extending from the free extremity
cilia
○ Composed of columnar cells
○ Vary in length, giving the appearance of more than one layer or stratum
○ Found in the upper respiratory tract, where the lining cells are ciliated
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
○ Consists of more than one layer of epithelial cells and includes stratified squamous, stratified columnar, and transitional epithelia
Stratified epithelium
○ Forms the outer layer of the skin and the lining of the first part of the digestive tract as far as the stomach
○ In ruminants, this tissue also lines the forestomach
○ Thickest and toughest of the epithelia, consisting of many layers of cells
Stratified squamous epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium
○ Layers (from deep to superficial):
■ Basal layer (stratum basale)
■ Parabasal layer (stratum spinosum)
■ Intermediate layer (stratum granulosum)
■ Superficial layer (stratum corneum)
● contains the actively growing and multiplying cells
● Cells are somewhat cuboidal, but as they are pushed toward the surface, away from the blood supply of the underlying tissues, they become flattened, tough and lifeless
● This layer of cornified (keratinized) dead cells becomes very thick in areas subjected to friction
Basal layer (stratum basale)
○ Composed of more than one layer of columnar cells and is found lining part of the pharynx and salivary ducts
Stratified columnar epithelium
○ Lines the portions of the urinary system that are subjected to stretching (i.e. urinary bladder, ureters)
○ Can pile up many cells thick when the bladder is small and empty and stretch out to a single layer when completely filled
Transitional epithelium
Cells that are specialized for secretion or excretion
Glandular epithelial cells
release from the gland cells of a substance that has been synthesized by the cell and that usually affects other cells in other parts of the body
Secretion
expulsion of waste products
Excretion
glands without ducts, which empty their secretory products directly into the bloodstream
Endocrine
glands that empty their secretory products on an epithelial surface,usually by means of ducts
Exocrine
Endocrine glands produce?
hormones
carried to all parts of the body by the blood constitute the humoral control of the body
Hormones
Humoral control and nervous control are the two mechanisms maintaining?
homeokinesis
Humoral control and nervous control are the two mechanisms maintaining homeokinesis , also called?
homeostasis
Endocrine glands constitute what system?
endocrine system
if the duct that not branch or has no duct at all ( gland )
Simple
if it does not branch ( gland )
Compound
if the secretory portion form a tubelike structure ( gland )
Tubular
if the secretory portion resembles a grape or hollow ball ( gland )
Alveolar or acinar
combination of tubular and alveolar secretory structures ( gland )
Tubuloalveolar gland
Compound glands subdivided grossly into?
globes
Compound glands subdivided grossly into globes , which are further subdivided into?
globules
The connective tissue partitions, septa , are classified as ? if they separate lobes
interlobar septa
The connective tissue partitions, septa , are classified as ? if they separate lobules
interlobular septa
■ Pass their secretory products through the cell wall without any appreciable loss of cytoplasm or noticeable damage to the cell membrane
Merocrine gland
■ Least common type
■ After the cells fills with secretory material, the entire gland cell discharges to the lumen of the gland to constitute the secretion
■ Sebaceous glands associated with hair follicles of the skin are the most common holocrine gland
Holocrine gland
■ An intermediate form of secretion in which a small amount of cytoplasm and cell membrane is lost with the secretion
■ Prostate and some sweat glands
Apocrine gland
Connective Tissues include:
○ Elastic tissue
○ Collagenous (white fibrous) tissue
○ Reticular (netlike) tissue
○ Adipose (fat) tissue
○ Cartilage
○ Bone
○ Contains kinked fibers that tend to regain their original shape after being stretched
○ Found in the ligamentum nuchae , a strong band that helps to support the head, particularly in horses and cattle
○ Found in the abdominal tunic, in the ligamenta flava of the spinal canal, in elastic arteries, and mixed with other tissues wherever elasticity is needed
Elastic tissue
Elastic tissue found in the?
ligamentum nuchae
a strong band that helps to support the head, particularly in horses and cattle
ligamentum nuchae
○ Found throughout the body in various forms
○ Individual cells (fibroblasts) produce long proteinaceous fibers of collagen, which have remarkable tensile strength
○ These fibers may be arranged in regular repeating units, or laid down in a more random, irregular arrangement
Collagenous (white fibrous) tissue
○ The fibers are arranged in parallel bundles, forming cords or bands of considerable strength
○ These are the tendons , which connect muscles to bones and the ligaments, which connect bones to bones
Dense regular connective tissue
○ What tissue is arranged in a thick mat, with fibers running in all directions
○ This forms a strong covering that resists tearing and yet is flexible enough to move with the surface of the body
Dense irregular connective tissue
The dermis of the skin, which may be tanned to make leather, consists of what tissue?
dense irregular connective tissue
○ Found throughout the body wherever protective cushioning and flexibility are needed
Areolar (loose) connective tissue
○ Consists of fine fibrils and cells
○ Makes up part of the framework of endocrine and lymphatic organs
Reticular connective tissue
○ Forms when connective tissue cells called adipocytes store fat as inclusions within the cytoplasm of the cell
○ As more fat is stored, the cell eventually becomes so filled with fat that the nucleus is pushed to one side of the cell, which, as a result, becomes spherical
Adipose (fat) tissue
Adipose (fat) tissue forms when connective tissue cells called ? store fat as inclusions within the cytoplasm of the cell
adipocytes
What adipose tissue is found in most animal body, although may have a yellow tinge in horses and some breeds of dairy cattle because of carotenoids in the feed?
White fat
What adipose tissue may be found domestic mammals, hibernating mammals, rodents, and human infants?
■ Generates heat to protect young mammals and hibernating mammals from extreme cold
Brown fat
○ A special type of connective tissue that is firmer than fibrous tissue but not as hard as bone
Cartilage
The nature of cartilage is due to the structure of the intercellular material found between the?
chondrocytes (cartilage cells)
The three types of cartilage:
hyaline, elastic and fibrous
■ Glasslike covering of bones within joints
■ Forms a smooth surface that reduces friction, so that one bone easily glides over the another
■ The actively growing areas near the ends of long bones also consist of this cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
■ Consists of a mixture of cartilage substance and elastic fibers
■ This type of cartilage gives shape and rigidity to the external ear
Elastic cartilage
■ Consists of a mixture of cartilage and collagenous fibers, which forms a semi elastic cushion of great strength
■ The intervertebral discs between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae are composed of this cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Produced by bone-forming cells called osteoblasts
Bone
Bone is produced by bone-forming cells called?
osteoblasts
What tissue does osteoblast produce? which later becomes calcified to form bone
osteoid tissue
sponge-like network formed when bone is arranged in the form of spicules (small spikes) and flat plates
Cancellous or spongy bone
what bone is laid down in the form of laminated cylinders (Haversian or osteonal systems ) closely packed together
Compact bone
○ Consists of a fluid matrix (liquid portion), the plasma, a variety of cells, proteins, monosaccharides (simple sugars), products of fat degradation, and other circulating nutrients, wastes, electrolytes, and chemical intermediates of cellular metabolism
○ It is sometimes considered to be a connective tissue because of the origin of some of its components
Blood
■ In most domestic mammals they are non-nucleated biconcave discs that contain the protein hemoglobin
■ Main function is to carry hemoglobin
Red blood cells | erythrocytes
Red blood cells also called?
erythrocytes
in turn has the primary function of carrying oxygen from the lungs to all tissues of the animal
Hemoglobin
is a reduction in the concentration of functional RBCs in the blood
Anemia
One of the body’s first line of defense against infection
White cells | leukocytes
White cells also called?
leukocytes
large cells ( Agranulocytes/White cells ) that engulf and destroy foreign particles
Monocytes
smaller cell ( Agranulocytes/White cells ) and are associated with immune responses
Lymphocytes
have 3 types that are described according to their affinity for different stains
Granulocytes | polymorphonuclear lymphocytes
Granulocytes also called?
polymorphonuclear lymphocytes
stain indifferently
Neutrophils
have dark-staining granules when stained with common blood stains
Basophils
have red-staining granules
Eosinophils
small, irregularly shaped cellular fragments that are associated with the clotting of the blood
Platelets (thrombocytes)
■ Is the fluid part of the unclotted blood
■ Particularly useful as a substitute for blood in transfusions because the proteins in it give it the same osmotic pressure as blood
■ This fluid, therefore, will not escape from blood vessels as readily as a salt solution
Plasma
■ Is the supernatant fluid that remains after a clot forms and incorporates the cellular components of blood
■ It is similar to plasma but lacks most of the clotting factors
■ Sometimes administered for prevention and treatment of diseases because it contains the antibody fractions of the blood
Serum
Three types of muscle tissue:
○ Skeletal
○ Smooth
○ Cardiac
muscle cells that consist of fibers that show characteristic cross-striations under the microscope
Striated muscle
■ Each muscle cell must have its own nerve supply, and when stimulated, the whole fiber contracts
■ This is the all-or-none law of muscle contraction
■ The force of contraction depends on the state on the state of the fiber at any moment
Skeletal
Striated skeletal muscle tissue plus some connective tissue makes up the ? of meat-producing animals
flesh
■ Are spindle-shaped cells that contain one centrally located nucleus per cell
■ Found in the walls of the digestive tract, in the walls of blood vessels, and in the walls of urinary and reproductive organs
■ These cells contract more slowly than skeletal muscle and in response to a variety of stimuli, although they are not under voluntary control
Smooth muscle cells
■ Also known as involuntary striated muscle because it is not usually under conscious control, yet it does have cross-striations
■ The heart muscle is composed of a complex branched arrangement of cardiac muscle cells
Cardiac muscle
Modified muscle cells called ? conduct impulses within the heart, much as nerve fibers do in other parts of the body
Purkinje fibers
the essential cell of nervous tissue
Neuron
the processes that conduct impulses away from the cell body
Axons
the processes that conduct impulses toward the cell body
Dendrites
bundles of axons in the spinal cord
Tracts
bundles of axons in the periphery
Nerves
What is a specialized wrapping created by supportive cells called Schwann cells in nerves and oligodendrocytes within the brain and spinal cord
Myelin sheath
Myelin sheath is a specialized wrapping created by supportive cells called ? in nerves
Schwann cells
Myelin sheath - a specialized wrapping created by supportive cells called ? within the brain and spinal cord
oligodendrocytes
what is a special connective tissues of nervous tissue and are found only in the central nervous system?
Neuroglia
● Exhibits bilateral symmetry
● The right and left sides of it are mirror images of each other
body
Similar right and left structures of the body are called
paired structures
Most unpaired structures are on or near on what plane ?, and of course, only one of each unpaired structure exists in any given animal
median plane
Most unpaired structures are on or near on what plane ?, and of course, only one of each unpaired structure exists in any given animal
median plane
the simple squamous epithelium lining various body cavities
Mesothelium
divides the embryonic body cavity into a thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity
diaphragm
What sac surrounds the heart
Pericardial sac
What sac surrounds the two lungs
Pleural sac (2)
Sacs are formed by a serous membrane called ? , a layer of simple squamous epithelium with underlying connective tissue, moistened with the small amount of fluid within the cavity of the sac
pleura
divided into abdominal and pelvic cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity
What cavity contains the kidneys, most of the digestive organs and a variable amount of the internal reproductive organs in both sexes
Abdominal cavity
contains the terminal part of the digestive system (the rectum) and all of the internal portions of the urogenital system not found in the abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
the serous membrane that surrounds the abdominal viscera and part of the pelvic viscera
Peritoneum
part of the serous membrane covering the viscus
Visceral serous membrane
serous membrane lining a body cavity
Parietal serous membrane
