YR12 - Chapter 1 KSS Flashcards
Psychology
the scientific study of human mental states and behaviour
Science
a field and practice that obtains knowledge and generates theories through observation and experiment
Empirical evidence
information obtained through direct and systematic observation or experimentation
Non-science
ideas formed without empirical evidence or the use of scientific methods or principles
Pseudo science
beliefs, theories, and practices that are mistakenly regarded as, or claim to be scientific, but are not because they do not use the methods of science
The scientific method
a procedure used to obtain knowledge that involves hypothesis formulation, testing, and retesting through processes
of experimentation, observation, measurement, and recording
Model
a representation of a concept, process,
or behaviour, often made to simplify or make something easier to understand
Theory
a proposition or set of principles that is used to explain something or make predictions about relationships between concepts
Aim
a statement outlining the purpose of an investigation
Hypothesis
a testable prediction about
the outcome of an investigation (IPAD)
Variable
a condition
or component of an experiment that can be measured or manipulated
Population
the group of people
who are the focus of the research and from which the sample is drawn
Sample
a subset of the research population who participate in a study
IV
the variable for which quantities are manipulated (controlled, selected,
or changed) by the researcher, and the variable that is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable
DV
the variable the researcher measures in an experiment for changes it may experience due to the effect of the independent variable
Controlled variables
variables other than the IV that a researcher holds constant (controls) in an investigation, to ensure that changes in the DV are solely due to changes in the IV
Controlled experiment
a type of investigation
in which the causal relationship between two variables is tested in a controlled environment; more specifically, the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is tested while aiming to control all other variables
pros - infer causal relationships, high level of control
cons - might not be real world settings
Investigation methodologies (also known as research methodologies)
any of the different processes, techniques and/or types of studies researchers use to obtain information about psychological phenomena
Case study
an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or particular phenomenon (activity, behaviour, event, or problem) that contains a real or hypothetical situation and includes the complexities that would be encountered in the real world
pros - highly detailed
cons - time consuming, not generalisable
Correlational study
a type of non-experimental study in which researchers observe and measure the relationship between two or more variables without any active control or manipulation of them
pros - no manipulation required
cons - cannot draw conclusions, subject to extraneous variables
Classification
the arrangement of phenomena, objects, or events into manageable sets
pros - common language to simplify
cons- might oversimplify
Identification
a process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to particular sets or possibly being part of
a new or unique set
pros - common language to simplify
cons- might oversimplify
Fieldwork
any research involving observation and interaction with people and environments in real- world settings, conducted beyond the laboratory
pros - naturalistic settings, rich detailed data
cons - time-consuming, no conclusions
Literature review
the process of collating and analysing secondary data related to other people’s scientific findings and/or viewpoints in order to answer a question or provide background information to help explain observed events, or as preparation for an investigation to generate primary data
pros - provides background info
cons - time consuming, might not be available
Modelling
the construction and/or manipulation of either a physical model, such as
a small- or large-scale representation of an object, or a conceptual model that represents a system involving concepts that help people know, understand, or simulate the system
pros - provide explanatory tools, simplify
cons - might oversimplify
Product, process, or system development
the design or evaluation
of an artefact, process, or system to meet a human need, which may involve technological applications, in addition to scientific knowledge and procedures
pros - might meed a human need
cons - time consuming and expensive
Simulation
a process of using a model to study the behaviour of a real or theoretical system
pros - provides insight into micro-details
cons - time consuming and expensive
Experimental group
the group of participants in an experiment who are exposed to a manipulated independent variable
(i.e. a specific intervention or treatment)
Control group
the group of participants in an experiment who receive no experimental treatment or intervention in order
to serve as a baseline for comparison
Within subjects design
an experimental design in which participants complete every experimental condition
pros - require less participants
cons - order effects
Between subjects design
an experimental design in which individuals are divided into different groups and complete only one experimental condition
pros -no order effects
cons - participant differences
Mixed design
an experimental design which combines elements of within-subjects and between-subjects designs
Generalisable
the ability for a sample’s results to be used to make conclusions about the wider research population
Sampling technique
the way a sample is selected from the population for a study
Convenience sampling
any sampling technique that involves selecting readily available members of the population, rather than using a random or systematic approach
pros - convenient, easy
cons - might not be representative
Random sampling
any sampling technique that uses a procedure to ensure every member of the population has the same chance of being selected
pros - representative
cons - not representative
Stratified sampling
any sampling technique that involves selecting people from the population in a way that ensures that its strata (subgroups) are proportionally represented in the sample
pros - representative
cons - time consuming
Allocation
the process of assigning participants to experimental conditions or groups
Extraneous variable
any variable that is not the independent variable but may cause an unwanted effect on the dependent variable
Confounding variable
a variable that has directly and systematically affected the dependent variable, apart from the independent variable
Participant related variable
characteristics of a study’s participants that may affect the results
order effects
the tendency for the order in which participants complete experimental conditions to have an effect on their behaviour
placebo
an inactive substance or treatment
placebo effect
when participants respond to an inactive substance or treatment as a result of their expectations
or beliefs
Experimenter effect/bias
when the expectations of the researcher affect the results of an experiment
Situational variables
any environmental factor that may affect the dependent variable
Non-standardised instructions and procedures
when directions and procedures differ across participants or experimental conditions
Demand characteristics
cues in an experiment that may signal to a participant the intention of the
study and influence their behaviour
Counterbalancing
a method to reduce order effects that involves ordering experimental conditions in a certain way
Single-blind procedure
a procedure in which participants are unaware of the experimental group or condition they have been allocated to
Double blind procedures
a procedure in which both participants and the experimenter do not know which conditions or groups participants are allocated to
data
information used as part of or generated by an investigation
Primary data
data collected first-hand by a researcher
Secondary data
data sourced from others’ prior research
Quantitative data
data that is expressed numerically
Qualitative data
data that is expressed non-numerically
objective data
factual data that is observed and measured independently of personal opinion
subjective data
data that is informed by personal opinion, perception, or interpretation
Descriptive statistics
statistics that summarise, organise, and describe data
Percentages
(given number / total number) *100
Percentage change
(old number - new number / old number) * 100
Measures of central tendency
descriptive statistics that summarise a data set by describing the centre of the distribution of the data set with a single value
Mean
a measure of central tendency that
describes the numerical average of a data set, expressed as a single value
Median
a measure of central tendency that is the middle value in a data set ordered from lowest to highest
Mode
a measure of central tendency that is the most frequently occurring value in a data set
Outlier
a value that differs significantly from other values in a data set
Measures of variability
statistics that summarise and describe the spread and distribution of a data set
Range
a measure of variability that is a value obtained by subtracting the lowest value in a data set from the highest value
Standard deviation
a measure of variability, expressed as a value that describes the spread of data around the mean
Table
a presentation of data arranged into columns and rows
Bar chart
a graph displaying the relationship between at least two variables using rectangular bars with heights or lengths proportional to the values they represent
Line graph
a graph displaying the relationship between at least two variables using a straight line to connect data points
Accuracy
how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being measured
true value
the value, or range of values, that would be found if the quantity could be measured
Precision
how closely a set of measurement values agree with each other
Systematic errors
errors in data that differ from the true value by a consistent amount
Random errors
errors in data that are unsystematic and occur due to chance
Uncertainty
the lack of exact knowledge relating to something being measured due to potential sources of variation in knowledge
Repeatability
the extent to which successive measurements or studies produce the same results when carried out under identical conditions within a short period of time
(e.g. same procedure, observer, instrument, instructions, and setting)
Reproducability
the extent to which successive measurements or studies produce the same results when repeated under different conditions
(e.g. different participants, time, observer, and/or environmental conditions)
Validity
the extent to which psychological tools and investigations truly support their findings or conclusions
Internal validity
the extent to which an investigation truly measures or investigates what it claims to
External validity
the extent to which the results of an investigation can be applied to similar individuals in different settings
Conclusion
a statement that summarises the findings of a study, including whether the hypothesis was supported or rejected
Ethical concepts
the broad, moral guiding principles that people should consider when conducting research, practising psychology, or when analysing a psychological issue
or debate
Beneficience
the commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action
Integrity
the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, and the honest reporting
of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding
Justice
the moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action
Non-maleficence
the principle of avoiding causing harm
Respect
the consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/or instrumental value; giving due regard to the welfare, liberty
and autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of both the individual and the collective; consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions; and when living things have diminished capacity to make their own decisions, ensuring that they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary
Ethical guidelines
the procedures and principles used to ensure that participants are safe and respected
Confidentiality
the privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity of individual results, including the removal of identifying elements
Informed consent
processes that ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential
risks (both physical and psychological), before agreeing to participate
in the study
Deception
the act of intentionally misleading participants about the true nature of a study or procedure
Debriefing
a procedure that ensures that, at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions
Voluntary participation
a principle that ensures there is no coercion or pressure put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved
Withdrawal rights
the right of participants to be able to discontinue their involvement in
an experiment at any time during, or after the conclusion of, an experiment without penalty
Ethical factors
- Sociocultural factors
- Economic factors
- Legal factors
- Political factors
