Chapter 1 - Key science skills Flashcards
Psychology
the scientific study of human mental states and behaviour
Science
a field and practice that obtains knowledge and generates theories through observation and experiment
Empirical Evidence
information obtained through direct and systematic observation or experimentation
Non Science
ideas formed without empirical evidence or the use of scientific methods or principles
Pseudo science
beliefs, theories, and practices that are mistakenly regarded as, or claim to be scientific, but are not because they do not use the methods of science
Controlled experiment
a type of investigation in which the causal relationship between two variables is tested in a controlled environment (more specifically, the effect of the IV on the DV is tested while aiming to control all other variables)
advantages - experimenters have high level of control, can infer causal relationships
disadvantages - might not be reflective of real life, or have experimenter effects
Theory
a proposition or set of principles that is used to explain something or make predictions about relationships between concepts
Model
a representation of a concept, process,
or behaviour, often made to simplify or make something easier to understand
Aim
the purpose of the experiment
“The aim is to investigate the effect of the IV on the DV.”
Hypothesis
A testable prediction about the outcome of the experiment (IPAD)
Variable
a condition
or component of an experiment that can be measured or manipulated
IV and DV
IV: variable that is manipulated by the researcher and is assumed to have an impact on the DV
DV: variable that is measured for changes it might experience due to IV
scientific method
a procedure used to obtain knowledge that involves hypothesis formulation, testing, and retesting through processes of experimentation, observation, measurement, and recording
correlational studies
a type of non-experimental study in which researchers observe and measure the relationship between two or more variables without any active control or manipulation of them
advantage - no manipulation required, provides ideas for future hypotheses
disadvantage - cannot draw conclusions of cause and effect, subject to EV
case study
an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or particular phenomenon (activity, behaviour, event, or problem) that contains a real or hypothetical situation and includes the complexities that would be encountered in the real world
advantage - highly detailed, rich information, provide future ideas
disadvantage- cannot be generalised, time-consuming
Controlled variables
field work
any research involving observation and interaction with people and environments in real- world settings, conducted beyond the laboratory
advantage - real world setting so applicable, provides rich detailed data
disadvantage - time consuming and expensive, difficult to replicate
classification/identification
Classification: arrangement of phenomena, objects, or events into manageable sets
Identification: process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to particular sets or possibly being part of a new or unique set
advantage - common language, simplifies ideas
disadvantage - can oversimplify, labels can be inaccurate and create bias
literature review
process of collating and analysing secondary data related to other people’s scientific findings and/or viewpoints in order to:
- answer a question
- or provide background information to help explain observed events
- or as preparation for an investigation to generate primary data
advantage - provides background information, understand current state of play
disadvantage - time consuming, hard if little research has been done on topic
modelling
- construction and/or manipulation of either a physical model, (small/large-scale representation of object)
or a conceptual model - that represents a system involving concepts that help people know, understand, or simulate the system
advantage - can provide explanatory tools, simplifies ideas
disadvantage - might oversimplify
simulation
a process of using a model to study the behaviour of a real or theoretical system
advantage - see micro details, provides insight
disadvantage - time-consuming and expensive, not always accurate
process or system development
- the design or evaluation of an artefact, process, or system to meet a human need
- which may involve technological applications
- in addition to scientific knowledge and procedures
advantage - creates things that meet a human need
disadvantage - time consuming and expensive
experimental group
the group of participants who are exposed to the IV/ experimental condition
control group
the group of participants who aren’t exposed to the IV
within subjects design
an experimental design in which participants complete every experimental condition
advantage - less participants needed, no participant differences
disadvantage - order effects
between subjects design
an experimental design in which individuals are divided into different groups and complete only one experimental condition
advantage - less time consuming,no order effects
disadvantage - requires more participants, differences across participants across groups can affect results
mixed design
An experimental design which combines elements of within-subjects and between-subjects designs. This allows experimenters to note differences that occur within each experimental group over time, and also compare differences across experimental groups.
advantage - compare results, use both
disadvantage - costly and time-consuming
population
the group of people who are the focus of the research and from which the sample is drawn
sample
a subset of the research population who participate in a study
convenience sampling
any sampling technique that involves selecting readily available members of the population, rather than using a random or systematic approach
advantage - most time and cost effective
disadvantage - unrepresentative
random sampling
any sampling technique that uses a procedure to ensure every member of the population has the same chance of being selected
advantage - representative
disadvantage - not representative, time consuming
stratified sampling
any sampling technique that involves selecting people from the population in a way that ensures that its strata (subgroups) are proportionally represented in the sample
advantage - representative
disadvantage - time consuming and expensive
extraneous variables
any variable that is not the IV but may cause an unwanted effect on the DV
confounding variables
- a variable than the other IV that has an unwanted effect on the DV
- making it impossible to determine which of the variables has produced the change in the DV
participant related variables
characteristics of a study’s participants that may affect the results
order effects
the tendency for the order in which participants complete experimental conditions to have an effect on their behaviour
placebo effects
when participants respond to an inactive substance or treatment as a result of their expectations or beliefs
experimenter effects
when the expectations of the researcher affect the results of an experiment
situational variables
any environmental factor that may affect the DV
non-standardised instructions
when directions and procedures differ across participants or experimental conditions
demand characteristics
cues in an experiment that may signal to a participant the intention of the study and influence their behaviour
how to avoid extraneous variables (8)
- sample sizing and procedures
- experimental design choice
- counterbalancing
- placebo
- single-blind procedures
- double-blind procedures
- standardised conditions and procedures
- controlled variables
E.C. beneficence
the commitment to:
- maximising benefits
- minimising the risks and harms
involved in taking a particular position or course of action
E.C. integrity
- commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding
- honest reporting of all sources of information and results, (whether favourable or unfavourable)
- in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge + understanding
E.C. justice
- moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims;
- that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action;
- and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action
E.C. non-maleficence
principle of avoiding causing harm
E.C. respect
- the consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/or instrumental value;
- giving due regard to the welfare, liberty and autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of both the individual and the collective;
- consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions;
- and when living things have diminished capacity to make their own decisions, ensuring that they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary
E.G. confidentiality
privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity of individual results, including the removal of identifying elements
E.G. informed consent
processes that ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks (both physical and psychological), before agreeing to participate in the study
E.G. use of deception
the act of intentionally misleading participants about the true nature of a study or procedure
E.G. debriefing
a procedure that ensures that, at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions
E.G. voluntary participation
- a principle that ensures there is no coercion or pressure put on the participant to partake in an experiment,
- and they freely choose to be involved
E.G. withdrawal rights
the right of participants to be able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during, or after the conclusion of, an experiment without penalty
