You are what you eat Block 3 week 3

Question 1

Chlorpromazine

Answer 1

• antipsychotic that can be used to treat anxiety, mania, psychosis and schrizophenia

Contraindications:

• Chlorpromazine should be avoided in patients with hypothyroidism, phaeochromocytoma, myasthenia gravis and prostate hypertrophy. It should be avoided in patients known to be hypersensitive to phenothiazines

side effects:

• agitation
• dizziness

Question 2

Cyclizine ?

Answer 2

• anti - sickness medication

Side effects:
- feeling drowsy
- dry mouth
- blurred vision
- headaches
- constipation

• antiemetic

Mechanism: Cyclizine is a histamine H1 receptor antagonist

Question 3

Cinnarizine

Answer 3

• antihistamine

side effects:
- feeling drowsy
- feeling sick

Question 4

Ondansetron ?

Answer 4

Ondansetron is used to prevent nausea and vomiting caused by cancer chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery.

Antiemetic is a group of drugs used to treat nausea and vomiting

Question 5

Asprin ?

Answer 5

• is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug used to reduce pain, fever, and/or inflammation, and as an antithrombotic.

Question 6

Ibuprofen ?

Answer 6

Ibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug that is used for treating pain, fever, and inflammation

Question 7

Omeprazole

Answer 7

• proton pump inhibitor

Is a medication used in the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease, peptic ulcer disease, and Zollinger–Ellison syndrome. It is also used to prevent upper gastrointestinal bleeding in people who are at high risk

Question 8

Cimetidine

Answer 8

• Cimetidine belongs to a class of drugs commonly called H2 blockers.

-Is a histamine H₂ receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production.

• It is mainly used in the treatment of heartburn and peptic ulcers (stomach ulcers)

Question 9

Ranitidine

Answer 9

Ranitidine is not currently available in the UK or globally. It has been discontinued as a precaution because it may contain a small amount of an impurity that has been linked to an increased risk of cancer in animals

• Ranitidine is a medicine that reduces the amount of acid your stomach makes. It was used for indigestion, heartburn and acid reflux, gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD – this is when you keep getting acid reflux), and to prevent and treat stomach ulcers.

Question 10

Gaviscon

Answer 10

Gaviscon can be used to treat heartburn (acid reflux) and indigestion.

The medicine works by forming a protective layer that floats on top of the contents of your stomach. This stops stomach acid escaping up into your food pipe. Gaviscon also contains an antacid that neutralises excess stomach acid and reduces pain and discomfort.

Question 11

Amoxicillin

Answer 11

Amoxicillin is an antibiotic medication used to treat a number of bacterial infections. These include middle ear infection, strep throat, pneumonia, skin infections, and urinary tract infections among others. It is taken by mouth, or less commonly by injection. Common adverse effects include nausea and rash.

Question 12

Clarithromycin

Answer 12

Clarithromycin, sold under the brand name Biaxin among others, is an antibiotic used to treat various bacterial infections. This includes strep throat, pneumonia, skin infections, H. pylori infection, and Lyme disease, among others. Clarithromycin can be taken by mouth as a pill or liquid

Question 13

Metronidazole

Answer 13

Metronidazole, sold under the brand name Flagyl among others, is an antibiotic and antiprotozoal medication. It is used either alone or with other antibiotics to treat pelvic inflammatory disease, endocarditis, and bacterial vaginosis. It is effective for dracunculiasis, giardiasis, trichomoniasis, and amebiasis

Question 14

Hyoscine butylbromide

Answer 14

• Buscopan relieves painful stomach cramps, including those linked with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).
• Hyoscine butylbromide, also known as scopolamine butylbromide and sold under the brandname Buscopan among others, is an anticholinergic medication used to treat crampy abdominal pain, esophageal spasms, renal colic, and bladder spasms. It is also used to improve respiratory secretions at the end of life
• Buscopan relieves painful stomach cramps, including those linked with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). It can also help bladder cramps and period pain. Buscopan contains the active ingredient hyoscine butylbromide
• anticholinergic medication
• Buscopan relieves painful stomach cramps, including those linked with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

It can also help bladder cramps and period pain.

Buscopan contains the active ingredient hyoscine butylbromide.

It’s not the same as hyoscine hydrobromide, which is a different medicine taken to prevent motion sickness.

Buscopan comes as tablets and is available on prescription. Buscopan also comes as 2 different products that you can buy from a pharmacy or shop:

Buscopan Cramps
Buscopan IBS Relief
It can also be given by injection, but this is usually only done in hospital.

Question 15

Atorvastatin

Answer 15

Atorvastatin is a statin medication used to prevent cardiovascular disease in those at high risk and to treat abnormal lipid levels. For the prevention of cardiovascular disease, statins are a first-line treatment. It is taken by mouth.

• treats high blood cholesterol
• Statins work by reducing the amount of cholesterol made by the liver and helping the liver remove cholesterol that is already in the blood.

Question 16

Bezafibrate

Answer 16

• Bezafibrate is a fibrate drug used as a lipid-lowering agent to treat hyperlipidaemia.

It helps to lower LDL cholesterol and triglyceride in the blood, and increase HDL.

Question 17

What are proton pump inhibitors ?

Answer 17

Proton-pump inhibitors are a class of medications that cause a profound and prolonged reduction of stomach acid production. They do so by irreversibly inhibiting the stomach’s H⁺/K⁺ ATPase proton pump. They are the most potent inhibitors of acid secretion available.

Question 18

The liver ?

Answer 18

• Subphrenic recess
• Hepatorenal recess
• Hepatorenal pouch

Liver:

• Positioned in the right hypochondrium
• Tail goes into the epigastric region

Answer 19

the abdominal region(s) occupied by the liver 
the falciform ligament and ligamentum teres of the liver 
the subphrenic (suprahepatic) spaces 
the hepatorenal pouch (of Morrison) 
the lesser omentum and the omental foramen (of Winslow) posterior to it 
the superior and inferior layers of the right and left coronary ligaments 
the right and left triangular ligaments 
the bare area 
the groove for the ductus venosus 
the inferior vena cava (IVC) embedded in the liver 
the three hepatic veins draining into the IVC 
the fundus, body and neck of the gall bladder 
the right, left, caudate and quadrate anatomical lobes 
the right and left functional lobes of the liver 
the rounded right costal surface and the sharp inferior and left borders of the liver 
the diaphragmatic and visceral surfaces of the liver 
the porta hepatis 
the right, left and common hepatic ducts, the cystic duct and the common bile duct 
the common, proper, right and left hepatic arteries 
the hepatic portal vein

Question 20

How is the liver attached to the stomach and duodenum ?

Answer 20

The lesser omentum, also called the small omentum or gastrohepatic omentum, is the double layer of peritoneum that extends from the liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach (hepatogastric ligament) and the first part of the duodenum (hepatoduodenal ligament).

Question 21

Where does blood go after the liver ?

Answer 21

• All the blood leaving the stomach and intestines passes through the liver. The liver processes this blood and breaks down, balances, and creates the nutrients and also metabolizes drugs into forms that are easier to use for the rest of the body or that are nontoxic.

-Blood leaves the liver through the hepatic veins. This blood is a mixture of blood from the hepatic artery and from the portal vein. The hepatic veins carry blood to the inferior vena cava—the largest vein in the body—which then carries blood from the abdomen and lower parts of the body to the right side of the heart.

Three hepatic veins draining into the inferior vena cava:

-Right hepatic vein
- Left hepatic vein
- Middle hepatic vein

Question 22

Answer 22

Question 23

Answer 23

• The ligamentum venosum, also known as Arantius’ ligament, is the fibrous remnant of the ductus venosus of the fetal circulation

-The ductus venosus is a shunt that allows oxygenated blood in the umbilical vein to bypass the liver and is essential for normal fetal circulation

Question 24

Answer 24

Question 25

Answer 25

just under the pancreas is the superior mesenteric artery and superior mesenteric vein

Question 26

Answer 26

Question 27

Answer 27

Question 28

Answer 28

Question 29

Answer 29

Question 30

Answer 30

Question 31

Biliary tree ?

Answer 31

Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. The bile travels from the cystic duct, down the common bile duct. Pancreatic juices come from the pancreas via the pancreatic duct. Where these meet is called the Ampulla of Vater. The Hepato- pancreatic sphincter controls contraction and when bile and pancreatic juices are released. The Major Duodenal papilla differentiates where the foregut ends and midgut begins. Gall bladder: -The liver produces approx. 500-600 ml of bile every day -Dark green, yellowish, brown fluid -Bile is slightly alkaline -Main functions of bile: -Emulsify lipids in from our food -Neutralises stomach pH -Excretes waste products from liver to faeces (e.g. bilirubin)

Question 32

Describe how does bile goes from the liver to the small intestines?

Answer 32

Bile is initially secreted from hepatocytes and drains from both lobes of the liver via canaliculi, intralobular ducts and collecting ducts into the left and right hepatic ducts. These ducts amalgamate to form the common hepatic duct, which runs alongside the hepatic vein. As the common hepatic duct descends, it is joined by the cystic duct – which allows bile to flow in and out of the gallbladder for storage and release. At this point, the common hepatic duct and cystic duct combine to form the common bile duct. The common bile duct descends and passes posteriorly to the first part of the duodenum and head of the pancreas. Here, it is joined by the main pancreatic duct, forming the hepatopancreatic ampulla (commonly known as the ampulla of Vater)

Question 33

Answer 33

the common, proper, right and left hepatic arteries

Question 34

Pancreas structure

Answer 34

- The pancreas is located behind the stomach in the upper left abdomen. - It is surrounded by other organs including the small intestine, liver, and spleen. - The wide part, called the head of the pancreas, is positioned toward the center of the abdomen. The head of the pancreas is located at the juncture where the stomach meets the first part of the small intestine. - Several major blood vessels surround the pancreas, the superior mesenteric artery, the superior mesenteric vein, the portal vein and the celiac axis, supplying blood to the pancreas and other abdominal organs.

Question 35

Answer 35

- Several major blood vessels surround the pancreas, the superior mesenteric artery, the superior mesenteric vein, the portal vein and the celiac axis, supplying blood to the pancreas and other abdominal organs.

Question 36

Function of the pancreas ?

Answer 36

Exocrine Function: The pancreas contains exocrine glands that produce enzymes important to digestion. These enzymes include trypsin and chymotrypsin to digest proteins; amylase for the digestion of carbohydrates; and lipase to break down fats. When food enters the stomach, these pancreatic juices are released into a system of ducts that culminate in the main pancreatic duct. The pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct to form the ampulla of Vater which is located at the first portion of the small intestine, called the duodenum. The common bile duct originates in the liver and the gallbladder and produces another important digestive juice called bile. The pancreatic juices and bile that are released into the duodenum, help the body to digest fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. Endocrine Function: The endocrine component of the pancreas consists of islet cells (islets of Langerhans) that create and release important hormones directly into the bloodstream. Two of the main pancreatic hormones are insulin, which acts to lower blood sugar, and glucagon, which acts to raise blood sugar. Maintaining proper blood sugar levels is crucial to the functioning of key organs including the brain, liver, and kidneys.

Question 37

Describe the function of the kidneys ?

Answer 37

Kidneys function: The kidneys' job is to filter your blood. They remove wastes, control the body's fluid balance, and keep the right levels of electrolytes. All of the blood in your body passes through them about 40 times a day. Blood comes into the kidney, waste gets removed, and salt, water, and minerals are adjusted, if needed. The filtered blood goes back into the body. Waste gets turned into urine, which collects in the kidney's pelvis -- a funnel-shaped structure that drains down a tube called the ureter to the bladder. Located in the posterior abdomen wall - At the vertebral levels T12 to L3 The two lobes of the kidneys sit at slightly different positions Left lobe of kidney – T12 – L2 Right lobe of kidney – L1-L3

Question 38

Answer 38

Left and right kidney Ureter is the tube coming out from either kidney. The adrenal glands sit on top of each kidney. Ureter function: These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder Adrenal glands: Adrenal glands produce hormones that help regulate your metabolism, immune system, blood pressure, response to stress and other essential functions The urinary bladder is a muscular sac in the pelvis, just above and behind the pubic bone. When empty, the bladder is about the size and shape of a pear. Urine is made in the kidneys and travels down two tubes called ureters to the bladder. The bladder stores urine, allowing urination to be infrequent and controlled. Urethra: The urethra is the tube that allows urine to pass out of the body. In men, it's a long tube that runs through the penis. It also carries semen in men. In women, it's short and is just above the vagina.

Question 39

Answer 39

Urethra: The urethra is the tube that allows urine to pass out of the body. In men, it's a long tube that runs through the penis. It also carries semen in men. In women, it's short and is just above the vagina.

Question 40

Answer 40

The blood to the kidneys are supplied by the renal arteries. The renal arteries branch DIRECTLY off the aorta A picture containing indoor, plastic Description automatically generated Renal artery Renal vein Adrenal arteries Adrenal veins Autonomic nerves SM ganglion Renal ganglion Renal artery and renal veins: Oxygenated blood comes to the kidneys from the right and left renal arteries off the abdominal aorta. Deoxygenated blood leaves the kidneys via the right and left renal veins that run into to the inferior vena cava. Adrenal arteries and adrenal veins: There are 3 adrenal arteries. The right and left adrenal glands receive oxygenated blood via superior suprarenal artery (arises from the inferior phrenic artery), middle suprarenal artery (aorta) and the inferior suprarenal artery (renal artery). Adrenal veins: only one suprarenal vein Autonomic nerves (involuntary) The kidneys are supplied with sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic nerves (rest and digest) of the autonomic nervous system, and the renal nerves contain both afferent and efferent fibres (afferent fibres carry nerve impulses to the central nervous system; efferent fibres, from it) Kidneys have renal ganglion and SM (superior mesentric) ganglion.

Question 41

Answer 41

Internal Features: Renal capsule: outermost layer Renal cortex: outer layer, extending down between pyramids Renal medulla: inner layer (middle) (renal pyramids) Renal calyces (major and minor) Renal pyramids (w/ renal papilla) Renal columns

Question 42

Answer 42

External features Lateral border of the kidney Inferior pole of the kidney Medial border of the kidney The rest of the renal system After urine leaves the kidneys, it travels down the ureter into the bladder.