The immune system Block 4 Week 2 Flashcards
Bones of the skull
The skull consists of two distinct structural parts: the neurocranium and the viscerocranium.
The neurocranium, which is the part that encloses the brain, is formed by the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid,
occipital, temporal and parietal bones. It has a dome-like roof, the calvaria and an irregular floor, the skull
base or basicranium.
The viscerocranium is the skeleton of the face and is formed by the maxilla, mandible,
inferior nasal conchae, nasal, lacrimal, vomer, ethmoid, zygomatic and palatine bones.
Pneumatic bone ?
pneumatic bone (plural pneumatic bones) (anatomy) Any bone, such as the mastoid process or those of the birds, that contains many hollow cells full of air.
ethmoid, maxilla, sphenoid, temporal and frontal bones are pneumatic
The cranial base has an external and internal surface.
External surface of the cranial base:
External surface of the cranial base Internal surface of the cranial base:
-FORAMINA
the foramen magnum (contents include
the medulla and the vertebral arteries)
the jugular foramen (contents include the
internal jugular vein and cranial nerves –
including CNX, the vagus nerve)
SITES WHERE MUSCLES ATTACH
the mastoid process
the styloid process
the external occipital protuberance
the superior and inferior nuchal lines
Note that some of these sites have multiple
functions.
OTHER FEATURES TO NOTE:
the occipital condyles (articulation of the
cranium with the vertebral column)
mandibular fossae (location of
mandibular condyles when jaw is closed)
Foramen magnum
The foramen magnum functions as a passage of the central nervous system through the skull connecting the brain with the spinal cord
Internal surface of the cranial base ?
LANDMARKS TO HELP YOUR
ORIENTATION:
- the sphenoidal crest
-the superior border of the petrous part of
the temporal bone
-the sella turcica: The sella turcica (Latin for ‘Turkish saddle’) is a saddle-shaped depression in the body of the sphenoid bone of the human skull.
The pituitary gland or hypophysis is located within the most inferior aspect of the sella turcica, the hypophyseal fossa.
FORAMINA AND OTHER APERTURES
-the foramen magnum
-the jugular foramen : Cranial nerves IX, X, and XI, originate from the brainstem and exit the cranium via the jugular foramen.Glossopharyngeal nerve: Ability to taste and swallow.
Vagus nerve: Digestion and heart rate.
Accessory nerve (or spinal accessory nerve): Shoulder and neck muscle movement.
- the superior orbital fissure (contents include
cranial nerves, including the ophthalmic nerve, a
branch of CNV, trigeminal nerve)
-the foramen rotundum (maxillary nerve, a
branch of CNV, trigeminal nerve)
-the foramen ovale (mandibular nerve, a
branch of CNV, trigeminal nerve)
-the hypoglossal canal (CNXII, hypoglossal
nerve)
more pics
Describe the joint of the skull ?
- Temporomandibular joint
- Pterion: The pterion is an H-shaped bony neurological landmark found at the junction of the frontal, sphenoid, parietal and the squamous part of temporal bone
- Occipitomastoid suture
- Lambdoid suture
- Parietomastoid suture
- Temporoparietal suture
- Coronal suture
Axial:
- sagittal suture
Sutures ?
Sutures are a type of fibrous joint that are unique to the skull. They are immovable and fuse completely around the age of 20.
These joints are important in the context of trauma, as they represent points of potential weakness in the skull
Coronoid process
The coronoid process acts as a bony buttress to prevent posterior dislocation
Attachments of the muscle of mastication
The primary muscles of mastication (pterygoids, masseter and temporalis) attach between the mandible and the rest of the skull.
Identify the following points of attachment of the muscles of mastication on a skull:
- the temporal fossa, and the coronoid process of the mandible (temporalis).
-the zygomatic bone & arch, and the angle & lateral surface of the mandible
(masseter).
-the infratemporal surface and the crest of the greater wing of sphenoid, and the
lateral surface of the lateral pterygoid plate (lateral pterygoid).
-the medial surface of the lateral pterygoid plate and pyramidal process of palatine,
tuberosity of maxilla, and the medial surface of the mandibular ramus (medial pterygoid)
When looking from the back the mastoid process is here
Azathioprine
- immunosuppressant
Indication:
- to treat inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis
- crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis
- severe inflammation of liver, skin or arteries
- blood disorders
- don’t reject an organ (prevent renal transplant rejection)
Contraindications:
- pregnant
- breastfeeding
- active infection
Side effects:
- fatigue
- rash
- nausea
- kidney damage
- hepatoxicity
Azathioprine (AZA) is an immunosuppressive agent that acts through its effects as an antagonist of purine metabolism, resulting in the inhibition of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), and protein synthesis.
Cyclosporin
- immunosuppressant
Indications:
- acute severe ulcerative colitis
- rheumatoid arthritis
- psoriasis
- don’t reject an organ
Contradiction:
- active infection
- malignancy
Side effects:
- kidney problems
- high blood
Clopidogrel
Clopidogrel is an antiplatelet medicine. It prevents platelets (a type of blood cell) from sticking together and forming a dangerous blood clot. Blood thinning medicine.
Indication:
- This protects you from having a stroke or heart attack.
Contraindications:
- Active bleeding
Side effects:
- hemorrhage (blood loss inside the body)
- skin reactions
Heparin
- injection anticoagulant. Only used in hospitals.
Patients who are unable to get out of bed in the days following surgery are at greater risk of forming clots,
Indications:
- prevention and treatment of thrombotic events such as deep vein thrombosis (DVT)
pulmonary embolism (PE)
atrial fibrillation (AF)
Contraindications:
- active bleedings
- hypersensitivity
Side effects:
- blood in the urine
- heavy bleeding or oozing from cuts
Apixaban
- anticoagulant medication
Indications:
- deep vein thrombosis (DVT)
- pulmonary embolism (PE) (blocked blood vessel in your lungs)
- reduces the risk of stroke
Warfarin
- anticoagulant
Dabigatran
- anticoagulant
- direct thrombin inhibitor
Tetanus booster
Tetanus vaccine, also known as tetanus toxoid, is a toxoid vaccine used to prevent tetanus
During childhood, five doses are recommended, with a sixth given during adolescence. After three doses, almost everyone is initially immune, but additional doses every ten years are recommended to maintain immunity
Haemostsis ?
Haemostasis is a process to prevent and stop bleeding, meaning to keep blood within a damaged blood vessel (the opposite of hemostasis is hemorrhage).
Thrombosis: occurs when blood clots block veins or arteries. The clots can get lodged and move around circulation to other places
What are the three stages of haemostasis ?
Arrows pointing at platelets see size compared to red blood cells