Year 1 Flashcards
Define the ‘Aim’
General statement that describes the purpose of the investigation
Define hypothesis
Statement made at start of study that clearly states the relationship between the two variables
Directional/ non directional
Directional: states the anticipated difference between two variables
Non-directional: there will be a difference but unspecified
When would research’s generally use a directional
When there has been previous research in a similar area so can be confident
Define variables
Anything that can vary or change within the experiment. Used to determine if one change results in another
Define IV
Aspect of experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher- or changes naturally- so affect on DV can be measured
Define DV
Variable that is measured by the researcher. Any affect on DV should be caused by IV
Define operationalisation
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
Define extraneous variables
Any variable other than IV that could affect DV. Unwanted. Not vary systematically with IV
Define confounding variables
Any variable other than IV that may have affected (past tense) the IV. Cannot tell rude source of change in DV. Vary systematically with IV
Define demand characteristics
Any cue from researcher or research situation that that may reveal purpose of investigation. May lead to change in behaviour
Investigator effects
Any affect (conscious or not) from investigators behaviour that could affect DV. Could include design or interactions with participants
Randomisation
Use of chance to control affects of bias when deciding conditions
Standardisation
Using exactly same procedure for all participants in study
Define experimental design
Different ways in which testing of participants can be organised in relation to experimental condition
What are the 3 experimental designs
- Independent groups: 2 separate groups in 2 separate conditions
- Repeated measures: all groups take part in all conditions
- Matched pairs: matched on rebrand variable the assigned to condition A or B
Evaluate independent groups
- Participant variables may affect DV
- Counter with random allocation
- Order effects not a problem so less likely to guess aim
Evaluate repeated measures
- Order of tasks may have a significant affect (order effects a confounding variable)
- ABBA counter balancing
- Increases demand characteristics
- Participant variables are controlled
Evaluate matched pairs
- Only take part in single condition so no order effects or demand characteristics
- Participants can never be exactly matched
- Time consuming so less economical
What are the 4 types of experiment
- Lab
- Field
- Natural
- Quasi
Strengths of Lab
- High control of extraneous variables, ensuring change in DV is IV
- Higher internal validity
- Replication is easy (no new extraneous variables in repeats)
- Gives better validity
Limitations of Lab
- Artificial so hard to generalise to real life
- Unfamiliar context may affect behaviour (low external validity)
- Participants know they are bong tested so demand characteristics
Define Field experiment
IV manipulated in natural, every day setting
Strength and weakness of field
Strength: environment more natural so behaviour more natural so more bald and authentic (higher external validity)
Weakness: no control over extraneous variables, hard to isolate IV/ DV relationship. Hard to replicate.
Ethical issues as no consent given
Define natural experiments
When researcher takes advantage of pre-existing IV the records DV. Would happen without researcher there
Strengths of natural experiment
- Provide opportunities that may otherwise have been blocked by ethical or practical reasons
- High external validity as study real life issues
Limitations of natural experiments
- Event may only happen rarely so limits score for generalising
- No random allocation so less sure of affect on DV
Describe quasi experiments
IV based on existing difference between people (age, gender). The variable is not manipulated or simple exists
Strength and limitations of quasi
Carried out in labs
May be confounding variables as no control over IV
Define population
Group of people who are focus of research
Define sample
Group of people drawn from target population. Meant to be representative so can generalise
What are the 5 sampling techniques
- Random
- Systematic
- Stratified
- Opportunity
- Volunteer
Outline a random sample
- All members of target population have equal chance of being picked
- Complete list of names of population assigned numbers
- Random number generator
Evaluate random sample
- Free from researcher bias as no influence on who’s picked
- Difficult to obtain full list of pop
- Selected participants may not want to participate
Outline a stratified sample
- Composition of sample reflects proportions of people in sub groups of population
- Identify different groups (strata)
- Appropriate proportions selected using random sampling
Evaluate stratified sample
- No researcher bias as random sample
- Produces a representative designed to reflect composition of population
- Easier to generalise
- Strata cannot represent all the ways people are different so not entirely representative
Outline systematic sample
Sampling frame produced (could
List people on age or alphabetical order) the selects every nth
Evaluate systematic sample
- No researcher bias
- Once system of selection is established no influence over who’s picked
- fairly representative
Outline opportunity sample
- As representative samples so hard to get
2. Simply select anyone who’s willing (like off the street)
Evaluate opportunity sample
- Saves time, effort and money
- Not representative as drawn from one specific area so cannot generalise
- Researcher has complete control over who’s picked (researcher bias)
Outline a volunteer sample
- Participant selects themselves
2. Advert or flyer
Evaluate a volunteer sample
- Easy and requires minimal input from researcher
2. Volunteer bias; may attract a certain kind of participant
Outline conformed consent
- Need to know roughly what they’re getting into (aware of aims)
- Aware of their rights (right to withdraw)
- What their data will be used for
- Should not feel coerced or obliged to take part
Outline deception
- Not deliberately mislead or information withheld
- otherwise their have not given informed consent
- Deception can be justified if does not cause distress
Protection from harm
- Should not be placed at risk
- Protected from physical and psychological harm
- Should not be given loads of stress or embarrassment
Privacy and confidentiality
- Right to control the Information about themselvs
What do researchers have to abide by in terms of ethics
BPS code of ethics
Set of ethical guidelines decided by a ethics committee
How is informed consent obtained
- Issues with a consent letter outlining relevant information what might affect their decision to take part
- This is then signed
- Under 16s need parental consent
What are the 3 alternative ways of gaining consent
- presumed consent: group of similar people give consent
- Prior general consent: agree to a number of different studies thereby consenting to deception
- Retrospective consent: asked in debriefing
How to deal with deception and protection of harm
- At end given a full debrief
- Informed of full aim and other details
- Told what data will be used for and given the right to withhold it
- In extreme causes research should provide counciling
Dealing with confidentiality
- Personal details protected
- Refer to participants by numbers rather than names
- In case studies use Intialis
What is the purpose of a pioneer study
- Small scale trial run using a handful of participants
- To test procedures and identify any flaws or extraneous variables
- With interviews and questionnaire it’s helpful to try out questions in advance to remove or reword ambiguous questions
- In obs it good to decide behavioural categories
Outline a double blind
- Participants not aware which condition they are in
2. Controls confounding effects of demand characteristics
Outline double blind
- Neither participant or researcher knows the aims
- Important in drugs trials (placebo)
- No researcher bias
What is the purpose of control groups
- To compare to experimental
- If change in behaviour of experimental group is significantly different to control the researcher can conclude that IV change this
What are the 6 kinds of observational techniques
- Naturalistic; controlled
- Covert; overt
- Participant; non-participant
Outline naturalistic ob
- takes place in context where target behaviour would usually occur.
- All aspects of environment free to vary
- High external validity
- lack control over extraneous variables and hard to replicate
Outline controlled observation
- Watching and recording behaviour within controlled environment
- Where variables are controlled
- Such as strange situation
Outline covert and overt observation
Covert: watched and recorded behaviours without their knowledge and consent
Overt: behaviour watched and observed with informed consent
Participant/ non participant
Participant: researcher becomes part of group they are studying
Non: the researcher remains outside of the group
Evaluate covert and overt
Covert:
1. As they do not know, removes participant reactivity and ensures natural behaviour (good validity)
2. Raises ethical issues
Overt:
More ethically acceptable but known they’re being observed may influence behaviour
Evaluate participant/ non
Participant:
1. Researcher can experience situation giving insight
2. If they get too involved they may lose objectivity
Non:
Do not gain this insight as far removed but will remain objective
Outline unstructured observation
- Wrote down everything they see
- Produce detail rich accounts of behaviour
- Appropriate for small scale/ few participants
Outline structured observation
- When there is too much to observe
- Only not target behaviours
- Quantify their observations using pre-determined list of behaviours
Outline behavioural categories
- Target behaviours should be precisely defined, observable and measurable so no inferences need to be made
- Should be no interpretation between observers
Outline event and time sampling
Event: counting the number of time the behaviour occurs
Time: recoding behaviour within a pre-establishes time frame (behavioural check list every 30 seconds)
Evaluate structured/un
Structured:
- Behavioural categories make recoding data easier and more systematic
- Quantitative data means easier to compare behaviour observed
Un
- Qualitative data is harder to compare
- More detail (something that might not be in category)
- Greater risk of observer bias
What are the two types of self-report techniques
Questionnaires (open and closed questions)
Interviews
Structured, unstructured, semi-structured
What type of data is collected from open/ closed questions
Open: qualitative
Closed: quantitive
Describe the 3 types of interview
Structured: pre-determined questions asked in a fixed order
Unstructured: general aim is set but no set questions
Semi: some predetermined Qs but more like a conversation
Strengths and limitations of questionnaire
Strength: large amount of data collected without researcher impute so cheap
Weakness: social desireability means response may be demand characteristic
Evaluate structured/ un interviews
Structured: easy to replicate and reduces differences between researchers but cannot explore off topic points
Un: follow up points means deeper insight
What are the 3 types of closed questionnaire
- Likert scale
- Rating scale
- Fixed choice options
What 3 things to do when writing questionnaire
- No jargon
- No emotive language or leading questions
- No double negatives or subjective options
What do correlations show
Strength and direction of an association between two co-variables
What is primary and secondary data
Primary: original data collected for purpose of investigation
Secondary: already exists and has been stat tested. Such as books or journals
Describe the mean
- Most sensitive as included all values so representative
2. Easily distirted by anomaly results
Describe median
Not affected by extremes but not representative of all values
When to use the mode
Data in categories
When to use bar chart
Make sure bars are not touching
Histograms
- Continuous data
- X made of equal size intervals of values
- Bars touch
What is a positive/ negative skew
Positive: distribution centred to left of graph
Negative: to the right
3 main aims of peer review
- Allocate research funding
- Validate quality of research
- Suggest improvements
Why are 3 problems with peer reviews
- Reviewer might feel threatened
- Journals want to publish content that will sell
- Paradime breaking research ignored
