Women diversity module pack 2 Flashcards
When did female police officers first emerge? And how has it got to where it has today?
WW1 – first female police officers; on a voluntary basis until after the war
1970s – women as ‘biologically necessary for the continuance of the force’ although contributing factors to ‘matrimonial wastage rates’ (Sir Robert Mark, Met Commissioner)
History of discrimination and harassment
First female Chief Constable in 1995
Women now play an active part of all police life
When was the first female chief constable put in position?
1995
What is representativeness of women working in the police?
Number of female officers increased
1990: 11%: 2009: 25%
Women under represented in senior ranks
Better in South Wales!
Who said the police force is a culture of masculinity?
Why is it argued this is the case and it is an anti-women profession?
(Smith & Grey, 1985; Heidensohn, 2004)
Police force is ‘macho’ and machoism a large part of police collective identity and they are socialised into this, therefore policing could be considered an anti-women profession
What are the problems that women in the police force meet due to ‘cop culture’?
- Machoism
- High levels of Sexual discrimination and harassment (Foster, 2005)
- The ‘de-feminised’ and de-’professionalised’ woman - marginalised by their peers, and femininity is seen as a weakness
- Women resultantly are given ‘womens work’
- A perception of deviant or threatening woman challenging custom and practice
What solutions/response can be done to help combat the effects of cop culture for women in the police force?
- A focus on representation and retention rather than changing the culture (Silvestri 2003) e.g. improved opportunities and promotions
- A focus on specialist areas of police work to help secure promotion (Westmarland, 2001)
What is the gender model theory for the differential treatment of women in the police?
There are differences because women have primary emphasis on family roles such as childbearing, child care, etc which has implications on their commitment and their work loyalty
Whereas, men are independent, assertive, goal orientated and work centred
What does research show about the policing assignments for women in the police force?
Over represented in community relations and supporting roles
Employed in child protection or vice units
Supportive roles in criminal investigations
What is the ‘job model’ for why there are gender differences in the police force?
What has research shown about gender differences through the job model view?
1) Work environment is orientated around men
2) Job related variables
3) Managerial or organisational influences e.g. support and encouragement
Findings:
Exposed male bias and opposition to women’s advancement
Organisational characteristics = increase lack of support/ commitment
What are the three parts of ‘attitudinal commitment’ by Porter et al (1974)?
- A belief and commitment to organisational goals;
- A willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organisation;
- A desire to retain membership of the organisation.
What has previous research in all career not just the police said about gender and attitudinal commitment? (2)
Gender and attitudinal commitment = inconclusive
Perceptions of attitudinal commitment = women perceived as less committed
(Kalleberg 1993; Dickens 1998)
What is the methodology of Dick and Metcalfe’s (2007) study into the job model, commitment to the police force and gender? Also what are the main 3 findings?
- It is a comparative study, using questionnaires, on similar geographic and policing demands, both city and rural areas, using Porter’s definition of commitment
- Findings 1: Tenure? Women less likely to achieve promotion than men, despite years of service/tenure
Findings 2: Commitment? Women less likely to achieve promotion than men, not attributed to organisational commitment though
Findings 3: Management or organisational support = important factor in encouraging commitment. But for BOTH genders, there was a report of lack of support at lower or junior ranks
In Dick and Metcalfes (2007) study into gender differences in the police force and commitment, what common themes came up regarding the organisational culture of the police force from the junior ranks?
Felt unable to make mistakes,
Were limited in how they expressed themselves,
Observed a lack of openness and honesty between ranks
Disliked the management style they experienced
What the key summery findings of the Dick and Metcalfes (2007) study into gender differences in the police force and commitment? (5)
1) Even with similar years of service in the police women were much less likely to be promoted
2) Both men and women share similar levels of organisational commitment
3) Findings refute the ‘gender model’ of organisational commitment in some instances and reinforce the job model’s influence - But need an integrative approach to multiple theories!
4) Management or organisational support was found to be an important factor in encouraging commitment for both male and female junior officers
5) Perhaps a positive finding in terms of how police forces can avoid gender bias in the management of officers
How can we tackle gender issues within the police force? And what organisation are trying to do this?
- The perception that women are less committed, especially from senior ranking officers, which feed down the ranks
- The Womens policing organisation
From the feminist perspective, what two factors effect theories around women in the police force?
1) Broader social stereotypes and gendered working structures
2) Engendered inequalities (Holdaway and Parker 1998) - Are we perhaps focusing too much on this?
What is the differences of policing sex workers since the introduction of the ACPO Policing Prostitution and Sexual Exploitation Strategy (2011)?
- Policed no longer as ‘criminals’, still illegal but treated as a harm rather than a crime
- Do not raid brothels anymore as cause more problems with community-police cohesion
- New multi-agency partnerships with sex worker organisations (including using exiting strategies in place of arrest).
- Seek to deal with the causes!
- Merseyside police have made crimes against sex workers a hate crime and this Merseyside ‘hate crime’ model has led to 67% conviction rate for rape
Explain the “Forging the links: rape investigation and prosecution (HMIC/HMCPSI) 2012”
- “Rape problem profiles” (records of singular offences which help catch serial serious sexual assaulter’s) are only being kept up to date in 3 police forces - only 7% met national minimun standard
- Number of rapes recorded by the police increased by more than a quarter
- On average more than 10% of reported rape offences are recorded as ‘no crimes’
- Overall, intelligence was not managed in a systematic way.
In 2011, what type of sentence was the most popular for women, and what was the least?
Most fines: 77%
Least Suspended sentences: 2%
What percentage of women receive: fines? Community sentences? Suspended? Custodial?
77%
10%
2%
3%
What percentage of arrested men or women were sentenced in 2011?
women - 24%
men - 76%
What is significant about gender and sentencing inside and outside of court?
Court proceedings increased for both M&F
Out of court disposals decreased for both M&F
But females seem to be changing at a faster rate
From the crown courts, what is the most significant gender-differenced outcome?
community sentences, which includes rehabilitation orders, curfews, community punishment and drug treatment etc
Why might females sentencing rates for theft and handling stolen goods, and fraud and forgery be higher than for men?
Could be explained by women playing a supportive role in criminal activity, and women committing crime for economic reasons
What crime are Females much more likely to receive a fine for than men? What crime has the same rate for sentencing?
1) theft and handling stolen goods
2) drug offences
With community sentences, what crimes are women more likely to receive this sentence for then men?
Theft and handling
Fraud and forgery
What crimes are men more likely to recieve immediate custody for? (4)
And which for women? (3)
And which for both? (1)
Men - violence, sexual offences, robbery/burglary, motor offences
Female - theft and handling, fraud and forgery and drugs
Both - violence against the person
What percentage of women receive fines? And of this percent what is for theft and handling?
77% (61% for men)
30%
With community sentences what percentage do men get, and what about females?
What percentage of people get community sentence for theft and handling?
What factor makes women more likely to receive a community sentence?
15% men
10% female
48% theft and handling
Younger age category!
What percentage of females get immediate custody? and men? (in 2011)
Who gets a longer sentence length?? Except for what crime?
3% female
10% men
Men on average longer
Except criminal damage
What factors are involved when making a sentencing decision? (4)
1) The message the judges/magistrate want to send to the offender and the community
2) Information about the offence
3) Information about the offender: characteristics, previous convictions, behavioural problems, family accommodation and employment to help rehabilitate
4) Judicial judgement
What is the chivalry or ‘judicial paternalism’?
- the idea that a male authority figure in the courts, will almost take pity on a female, and display chivalry towards her.
- Only applies for those who conform to conventional roles – not for single mothers or homosexuals.
- Distinctions between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ mothers – those that conform are seen as good, and those that do not seen as bad.
- Focused on children/families to conserve the fabric of society
- Relies on notions of women as passive, physically and emotionally weak, need for protection and punishment
What is the double deviance theory within sentencing?
women are deviant twice because:
Women offenders have transgressed social norms AND gender norms
Medicalisation of deviant women – women who are deviant must also be mentally ill, to go against their gender norms.
‘masculine’ crimes
