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Criminology > Offending and Victimisation Spring Part Two > Flashcards

Offending and Victimisation Spring Part Two Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 5 hate crimes? Which are ‘hate crime’ and which are ‘protected factors’?

A 
Race - Hate crime
Religion - Hate crime
Disability - P.C
Sexual orientation - P.C
Transgender status - P.C
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2
Q

What are the 4 forms that hate crime can come in?

A

1) Physical attack - assault, GBH, arson, etc
2) Threat of attack - offensive letters, intimidation, etc
3) Verbal abuse, insults or harassment - bullying, taunting, etc
4) Cyber hate - trolling, offensive websites, etc

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3
Q

According to BCS 09/10 & 10/11, how many hate crimes are reported to the police per year? And how many where reported in the BCS? What is the dark figure?

A

police recorded - 260,000
BCS - 9,561,000
Dark figure - 50% half of victims do not report!

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4
Q

What percentage of the overall BCS crime does hate crime make up? What percentage of personal crime? And lastly, what percentage of household crime?

A

3% overall crime
4% personal crime
2% household crime

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5
Q

Of all hate crimes, which is the most prevalent?

A

Racial hate crimes

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6
Q

Repeat hate crime victims - 1in? (??%) were victimised more than once in the last year, with ??% being victimised three of more times in the last year

A

1 in 3 and 31%

18% - 3 or more times

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7
Q

Hate crime is more likely to be a household crime than a personal crime offence: _% household crime compared to _% personal crime

A

household - 37%

personal - 19%

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8
Q

What is more common for a male hate crime offender? And what is more common of female hate crime offenders?

A

Men - overt

Women - covert, spectators

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9
Q 
In Mason and Palmer (1996) study of sexual orientation hate crime victims what percentage were..
_% male victim of physical violence
_% female victim of physical violence
_% verbally abused or harassed
_% name calling and public ridicule
A

male physical - 34%
women physical - 23%
verbal abuse/harassment - 32%
ridiculed - 73%

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10
Q

In Robinson and Williams (2003) study of LGBT victims:
A) % reported being a victim of physical violence (% male and _% female)
B) % reported being a victim of verbal abuse and harassment (% male and _% female)
C) _% had been name called and publicly ridiculed

A

A) 35% - male 49% vs female 30%
B) 57% - male 63% vs female 54%
C) 64%

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11
Q

Williams and Robson (2007) study of LGBT victims over the last 12 moths showed that _% had been victims of physical violence, _% victims of homophobic harassment and _% homophobic property crime
The majority of the crimes were classed as being ‘not very serious’ - _% violent incidents, _% property crime and _% harassment

A

violence - 5%
harassment - 22%
Property crime - 3%

violence - 67%
harassment - 87%
Property crime - 77%

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12
Q

Hate crime has a huge emotional impact compared to other crimes e.g. _% depression compared to overall BCS victims _% & same again with fear _% HC victims compared to _% overall

A

Depression 20% vs 6%

Fear 39% vs 14%

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13
Q

What are the physical impacts/reactions to being a victim of hate crime?

A

Overt, visible response towards offender or group/individuals that possess the same characteristics as the offender

  • increased hostility
  • anger towards others
  • verbal retaliation
  • physical retalitation
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14
Q

What are the psychological impact/effects of being a victim of hate crime?

A

Individual short, medium or long term emotional reaction

  • sleep deprivation
  • anxiety/panic attacks
  • vulnerability
  • depression
  • upset/crying
  • isolation
  • suicidal thoughts
  • stress
  • shock
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15
Q

Which 2 hate crime victims are most likely to suffer from psychological effects of being victimised?

A

Disability and transgender

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16
Q

What kind of hate crime offence is the most likely to cause psychological damage?

A

Threats - 14%

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17
Q

What are 2 problems with victimisation surveys?

A

1) who is deemed a victim? - positivist criminology believes a victim is someone who suffers, however a lot of victims of hate crime have become neutralised by sustained nature of abuse therefore are not a ‘victim’ as such as they are resilient to offending. If the victim is not seen as suffering enough and meet the social, cultural and political ‘ideal victim’ then it is seen as ‘illegitimate’ of being a victim
2) only shows correlations not causation

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18
Q

There is not one homogeneous hate crime offender, what what is the typical offender profile?

A

Young, white males
Live local to the victim
usually occurs in groups
Crime usually happens near the victims home

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19
Q

Hate crime perpetrators: stranger vs known?

A

Mostly strangers, especially religion and sexual orientation
Known offender is more likely for victims of disability hate crime - ‘mate crime’
p.s religion use to be known, but since terrorist attacks it has become more common by strangers

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20
Q

What is the gender of a typical hate crime? Specify the percentage of offenders in transgender and sexual orientation hate crime

A

Usually male, females often spectators
100% male transgender perpetrators
82% male sexual orientation perpetrators

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21
Q

Whats the general age range of hate crime perpetrators? Be specific about transgender and age hate crime offenders

A

Generally under 31
100% of transgender offenders were under 31
Age hate crime has a more even split - 65% under 31, whilst 35% 31 and over

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22
Q

What did Berill (1992) find about the age and gender of LGBT hate crime perpetrators?

A

50% of LGBT perpetrators were under 21 and 90% were male

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23
Q

List the 5 acts that engage in criminalising hate crime

A

1) Public order act 1986
2) Crime and disorder act 1998 (Amended by: Anti-terrorism, crime and security act 2001)
3) Criminal justice act 2003
4) Racial and religious hatred act 2006
5) Criminal justice and immigrant act 2008

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24
Q

What did the Public Order Act 1986 do?

A

Criminalise incitement to racial hatred

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25
Q

What did the Crime and disorder act 1998 (Amended by: Anti-terrorism, crime and security act 2001) do?

A

Criminalise racial and religious as hate crimes

  • racially or religiously aggravated assault
  • racially or religiously aggravated property damage
  • racially or religiously aggravated harassment
  • racially or religiously aggravated public order offences
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26
Q

What did the Criminal justice act 2003 do?

A

Made sexual orientation and disability protected factors - meaning can be subject to harsher sentencing and higher severity

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27
Q

What did the Racial and religious hatred act 2006 do?

A

Incitement to religious hatred

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28
Q

What did the Criminal Justice and Immigrant Act 2008 do?

A

Incitement to hatred of sexual orientation

29
Q

Research shows that both crime and prejudice are influenced in the short term by singular events such as: (4)

A

1) terrorism
2) court cases and terrorism
3) widely publicised murder
4) riots

30
Q

How many hate crimes occurred the year following 9/11? Explain the answer

A
  • 491 hate crimes due to an anti-Muslim motive
  • Hate crime is seen to seen cluster in time and tends to dramatically increase in the aftermath of an antecedent or trigger event (Sutton and King, 2013)
31
Q

What is an advantage of using online data of cyber hate crimes?

A
  • Looks at when, not only where
  • temporal data allows us to see when escalation, duration, diffusion and deescalation following events, whereas offline data is limited due to under-reporting, low granularity and retrospective
32
Q

Why is hate crime more likely to occur on social media?

A

De-individualisation (anonymity, lack of self-awareness and disinhibition)

33
Q

Give an example of how cyber hate has been criminalised and what obstacles does criminal justice meet when criminalising cyber hate

A
  • Daniel Thomas arrested in 2012 for abusing/trolling Tom Daley about being homosexual on twitter
  • Raises arguments of free speech vs hate crime
  • Hard to regulate and criminalise as global and also different countries have different laws and perspectives e.g. american free speech allows hatred, whereas the UK does not
34
Q

Discuss the different notable stages of increased cyber hate crime after the Lee Rigby attack
Also what percentage of tweets incited hate and who made up these hateful tweets

A
  • After the event is an ‘impact stage’
  • After 2 days is the ‘inventory stage’
  • Day 3-14 it is begun to be discussed
  • Between the impact stage and the inventory stage tweeters are fuelled by press coverage especially by those who wish to spread hate, biased rumours and speculation
  • Cyber hate fades out within 24 hours (impact stage) as people stop retweeting
  • 1% of tweets were identified as cyber hate
  • 95% were by ‘other agents’ - ordinary people
35
Q

Post-woolwich terrorist attack, negative tweets were _% less likely to be retweet, compared to _% positive tweets

A
  • 45% less likely negative

- 38% more likely postive

36
Q

For every 100 news headlines, how much does the rate of retweets go up by? _%

A

5%

37
Q

News agencies are more likely to be retweeted by a factor of ., compared to police agencies were more like likely to be retweeted by a factor of .

A

news 4.3

police 5.7

38
Q

What can Milgram’s (1974) psychological theory tell us about hate crime?

A
  • Milgram was interested in why the holocaust happened
  • study showed that 2/3 people administered the lethal attack because someone of authority (‘white coat’) told them too
  • Therefore can understand that prejudice is a learning process where you learn from others and do what they say
39
Q

What does psychological understandings of authoritarianism teach us about hate crime? (Adorno, 1950; Allport, 1954) - Also give one criticism

A
  • prejudice usually comes from authoritarian families who treat their children in a way that is neglectful, rejective, suppressive, overly critical and inconsistent
  • Child learns that the world is not equal, but hierarchical, and that power and authority are important in human relationships
  • Child fears showing aggression to their parents, therefore displaces aggression onto others
  • However, this approach can be criticised for having limited explanation of how and why prejudice was acquired/maintained
40
Q

What can Asch (1956) theorise about hate crime? (social-psychological theory)

A
  • deindividualisation

- 2/3 of Ps gave the wrong answer just to conform with the group and be accepted by the others

41
Q

What effect does the media have on explaining hate crime? (Social-psychological theory)

A
  • sensationalist coverage of hate crime events has been shown to cause a ‘contagion’ of events (King and Sutton, 2014)
  • media has an active role in shaping stereotypes
  • ‘hate amplifying’ political discourse e.g. BNP
42
Q

How can shame be used to explain why hate crime offenders offend? (social-psychological theory) (3 ideas)

A
  • Ray et al (2004): offenders saw themselves as weak and disregarded, unfairly treated and made to feel small by their Asian victims (racial violence was used to re-establish control, escaping shame to pride)
  • Jennings and Murphy (2000): the shame explanation for hostility to homosexuality comes from the personal shame of their own homoerotic feelings
  • Humiliation theory: Great majority are not homophobic, but in fact fear that other men will think they are unless they are prejudice towards homosexuality
43
Q

What makes up Levin and McDevitt (1993) typology of hate crime?

A
  • Thrill-seeking crimes
  • Reactive crimes
  • Mission crimes
44
Q

What are thrill-seeking hate crimes? Discuss Boston example by Levin and McDevitt (1993)

A
  • Perpetrators often leave their neighbourhood to seek out victims
  • Commit hate crime due to ‘boredom and just looking for some fun’
  • Offenders show little actual bias (e.g. racial hate, but not actually a racist)
  • Builds on Katz (1988) theory of seductions of crime and Steven Lyng (2003) ‘Edgework’ and Sunderland’s (1939) differential association
  • 2/3 Boston hate crimes are presumed to be ‘thrill-seeking’
45
Q

What 5 aspects make up Sunderland’s (1939) ‘differential association’?

A

1) learnt through interaction with others
2) learn criminal behaviour through intimate personal groups/relationships
3) learn techniques of how to commit crime
4) delinquent because excessive definitions that are unlawful, compared to those that are acceptable
5) peer pressure, hierarchy, acceptance of the group, etc

46
Q

Describe ‘reactive (defensive) crimes’ for hate crime (Apply to Boston)

A
  • Offenders react to what they see as an intrusion
  • The nature of the trigger incident is important e.g. two lesbians kissing
  • Accounts for 1/4 of Boston hate crimes
  • Offenders do not leave neighbourhood to seek victims - “not in my backyard”
  • Seen as ‘fine on paper’ but not when close to home/threatens the protection of the family
47
Q

What is mission crimes?

A
  • Offender usually acting alone seeks to rid the world of a particular kind of person who they deem to be ‘evil’ e.g. wants to rid of all homosexual people
  • Example: David Copeland the nail bomber
  • Associated with mental health issues
  • Very rare
48
Q

From a sociological perspective, how would hate crime be explained?

A
  • Tendency to treat hate crimes as a variant on youth violence and delinquency
  • ‘anomic outbursts’ of poorly integrated individuals within a society, or from a solidarity reaction to a threatened community or group
49
Q

What is Suttles (1972) ‘defended communities perspective’ to explain hate crime? (Sociological explanation)

A
  • strategies for defending against threats posed to valued identities and ways of life e.g. sharia law in England
  • Inculcation of prejudiced beliefs become more acute under competition for scarce economic resources e.g. see someone on disability benefits as a ‘scourger’
  • Important because hate crime is not about the individual victim, but it is a symbolic target of the whole social group - As such these crimes may have particularly pernicious consequences across communities
50
Q

What is Byers et al (1999) sociological explanation for hate crime?

A

Revision of Sykes and Matzas (1957) 5 techniques of neutralisation applied to explain hate crime towards the Amish:

1) Denying any real harm
2) De-humanising the victims and their casting them as deserving of their victimisation ‘denial of the victim’
3) Appealing to higher loyalties such as peer group bonds
4) Questioning the position of those who would seek to condemn them
5) ‘Neutralising their responsibility’ by blaming other factors for what they did

51
Q

What is the problem with ‘defining terrorism’?

A
  • There is no unilateral definition - Over 100 different used definitions!
  • Not universally agreeable as every country has a different perspective of what is terrorism, which consequently causes tension
  • Definitions are driven by perspective e.g. “One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fight”
52
Q

What is the UK operational/legal definition of terrorism?

A
  • ‘Actual or threatened acts of violence against people or property designed to influence the government or to intimidate the public to advance a political, religious, racial or ideological cause’
53
Q

Must know What is the distinctions outlined by Wilkinson (2006) which separates violence and terrorism?

A

1) It is always premeditated
2) It retains a symbolic element (symbolic victimisation)
3) It is (usually) considered to be extra-normal (violates norms, extraordinary)
4) Used to influence political power

54
Q

What are the 6 forms of terrorism that ‘count’ as terrorism?

A

1) state sponsored terrorism (internal and external)
2) Ethno-national terrorism
3) ideological terrorism
4) religo-political terrorism
5) single-issue terrorism
6) ‘New’ terrorism

55
Q

Give an example of ‘state sponsored terrorism’

A
  • Internal domestic policy e.g. Syria

- External foreign policy e.g North Korea

56
Q

Give an example of ‘ethno-nationalist terrorism’

A
  • ETA Spain: Spanish terrorist group fighting for wanting their own land and ethnicity, who broke many seize fires and killed over 800 people
57
Q

Give an example of ‘ideological terrorism’

A
  • Red Bridge, Italy: Neo-Marxist movement fighting against the establishment as a symbol of class oppression
58
Q

Give an example of ‘religo-political terrorism’

A
  • Groups that make claims over land on the basis of religion e.g. Hamas in Palestein or Jews in Goldstein
59
Q

Give an example of ‘single-issue terrorism’

A
  • Animal liberation front: protested against testing on animals by violence against the companies, workers and buildings invovled
60
Q

Give an example of ‘New terrorism’

A
  • Radical transformation, categorical shift in motivation, use of violence and means of violence e.g. ISIS and Al Quedia
61
Q

What is ‘New terrorism’s aims and threats?

A
  • Change in nature of threat: use to be about raising awareness and making an effect, but now driven by mass murder and destruction e.g. IRA use to warn before a bomb went off, whereas new terrorism there is no warning
    Aims:
  • Mass causalities
  • Suicide attacks
  • CBR weapons
    Threats:
  • Significant threat of international terror
  • CBRN incidents - biological or nuclear
  • Hostile attacks on UK cyber space
62
Q

Describe Nelson Mandala and why he was considered a terrorist

A
  • Nelson Mandela was condemned as a terrorist as he was apart of the African national congress (ANC) who were a ‘terrorist’ organisation that opposed white supremacy and the apartheid government
  • The apartheid begun in 1948 and the government committed vast amount of atrocities against black people, with laws being made that refuted racial equality, separating black and white people from transport, education, relationships, etc
  • The ANC leader Oliver Tambo authorised a car bomb which killed 19 and wounded 217
  • Mandela was jailed, but later released and granted immunity by the TRC (truth and reconciliation commission)
63
Q

Who are the victims of counter-terrorism?

A

Hillyard’s ‘suspect community’ (1993) - e.g. mosques have become victims/suspects of terrorism when they are innocent
Pantazi and Pemberton (2009) - infiltration into group organisations causing mistrust and victimisation

64
Q

Who are the offenders of terrorism?

A

Unsure due to ambiguity of ‘terrorist’
Could be:
- Primary perpetrators? e.g. networks, politicians, etc
- Those who directly assist?
- Passive members of the community?
- Role of the state ‘foreign policy’ victimising ‘terrorists’

65
Q

What is the economic approach to understanding terrorism?

A

Game theory (Sandler, 2002) - Rational agents interacting and predicting each others actions next - a competing relationship

66
Q

What is the psychological ‘group-orientated analysis’ approach to understanding terrorism?

A

(Silke, 2008) Terrorism is the result of collective victimisation

67
Q

What is the psychological ‘individual as the primary unit of analysis’ approach to understanding terrorism? Give a criticism

A
  • Piven: Terrorist have low self-esteem, paranoid tendencies, lack of empathy, etc
  • Thakah (2004): Terrorism is pathological and they decide to get involved due to ‘a disturbed relationship with their own identity’
  • Criticism: shouldnt be considered ‘illness’ as often terrorism is highly rationalised and are often more stable than violent offenders, it is premeditated
68
Q

What is a sociological understanding of terrorism?

A

Anomie, Strain, etc : Terrorism is collective problem solving

Criminology (12 decks)

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