What i need to review Flashcards
Basic units of lipids
Fatty acids
What are fatty acids?
Chain of carbons with a hydrogen atom, methyl end and a carboxyl end
Length of carbon chain
14-24 atoms
Saturation
Number of H atoms the carbons in the fatty acids are holding
What is the term used when it is the max number of H atoms without carbon double bonds?
Saturation
SFA
Does not have double bonds between the long hydrocarbon chain
Unsaturated
Addition of a double bond in between the long hydrocarbon chain where 2 hydrogen atoms are missing
Polyunsaturated
More than 1 double bond
What is it when there is more than 4 hydrogen atoms missing?
polyunsaturated
Monounsaturated
1 double bond
Two fatty acids cannot be synthesized in the body
needs to be obtained in the diet
Where to find alpha-linoleic acid?
flaxseed oil
Where to find EPA and DHA?
fatty fish and fish oils
What are the three subclasses of lipids?
- triglycerides
- phospholipids
- sterols
What are triglycerides
major storage form of fat in our body
95% chief form of fat in foods
Glycerol is made up of what
3 carbon alcohol that is a backbone of a triglyceride
saturated fatty acids
packed together tightly
solid at room temp
Unsaturated fatty acids
cannot be stacked together
liquid at room temp
High in monosaturated fats
Olive and canola oil
What are high in polyunsaturated fats
sunflower and corn oil
Hydrogenation
What converts liquid into a solid and creates trans-fatty acids?
Hydrogenation
Naturally occuring trans-fatty acids
conjugated linoleic acid
Most common phospholipid
lecithin
What is lecithin made up of?
glycerol with two fatty acids and a phosphate group + choline
What is lecithin?
emulsifier
What is a sterol?
lipid containing multiple rings of carbon atoms
What emulsifies fat (cholesterol in bile)
Sterol
What synthesizes cholesterol
liver
How much grams/day of sterols?
2g/day
What is fat hard to digest?
insoluble in water
Limited digestion
fats occuring in watery environments (stomach or mouth)
What breaks down fat in the mouth
lingual lipase
what is gastric lipase
hydrolysis a small amount of fat
How is fat digested in the stomach
bile emulsifies fat
What breaks down emulsified fat?
pancreatic and intestinal lipase
Enterocyte
Absorbs digestion products
How are short and medium chain fatty acids transported to the liver?
albumin and carried to the liver by the portal vein
How are chylomicrons transported?
Through the lymphatic systems since they are too big to fit through the pores of the capillaries
What do lipids bundle with for transport?
proteins
What are the 4 types of lipoproteins?
- Chylomicrons
- VLDL
- LDL
4HDL
What are chylomicrons used for?
transport lipids from the intestinal cells into the body
What is the use of VLDL?
transports lipids to adipose and muscle tissue
What is VLDL mainly composed of
triglycerides
What is the use of LDL
carry cholesterol from the liver to the body
What is LDL mainly compose of
Cholesterol
What is the use of HDL
transports cholesterol back to the liver
What is HDL mainly composed of
Protein
What is the use of liver cells
picks up chylomicron remmants
Why are omega-3 good for you
potent protector against heart disease
What are the three main functions of sterols
1, emulsify fat
2. chemical messenger
3. bone metabolism
UL
Tolerable upper intake level
- the amount of nutrients a person can take that is safe
How to calculate %DV
amount in serving/ recommended intake
EAR
Estimated average requirement
-how much is needed in the diet
AI
Adequate intake
- best guess and guide for nutrient intake
DRI
Dietary reference intake
- amount of energy and nutrient required for best health
What makes up gastric juices
- water
- HCL
- Pepsin
What is cephalic phase
- taste, smell that satiating feeling of being hungry
What is bile
emulsifier that take fat from water and form emulsion
GIP
- Gastric inhibitory peptide
- produced by the duodenum and inhibits gastric motility and the secretion of acid
Facilitated diffusion
only water soluble
requires carrier protein
concentration for high to low
Secretin
hormone produced by the duodenum when the stomach acid pH level is below 4.5
Gastrin
Hormone produced by the G cells that promotes the release of HCL and controls the release of pepsin
CCK
hormone produced by the duodenum that stimulates the release to digestive enzymes due to lipid rich chyme
What are complex carbs
Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides
What are three disaccharides
- maltose
- sucrose
- lactose
What are postbiotics
bioactive compounds that occurs when there is prebiotic fibre in the colon
healthy immune system and healthy digestive system
What are three types of simple carbs
- Glucose
- Fructose
- Galactose
Soluble fibre
Broken down by water and turns into gel
- fermented
How is lactose made?
glucose and galactose
Digestion of carbs in the pancreas
secrete pancreatic analyse into a small int. breaks down starch into small poly and maltose
What is a byproduct of digestion
galactose
How is insulin created
in the beta cells of the pancreas to help break down glucose from the blood
What is glycemic response
glucose absorption after meal;
Digestion of carbs ion the small int.
enzyme -> disaccharide-> mono-> portal vein-> liver
What is glycemic index
measures how quickly carbs are absorbed
What is a type of polyunsaturated fat
sunflower oil
What is glucogenesis?
production of glucose from amino acids in the liver
Three subclasses of lipids
- tri
- phospho
- sterols
What is a naturally occuring trans-fatty acid
linoleic acid
What breaks down lipids in the mouth
lingual lipase
What is glucagon
production of the alpha cells of the pancreas - stimulates the breakdown of glycogen to glucose
What makes protein different
contains nitrogen atom
How many amino acids are there
20
How many essential amino acids are there?
9
What is transamination
transfers amine group from one amino acid to another to create a new amino acid and keto
What converts essential to non-essential and occurs in the liver?
transamination
What is conditionally essential
amino acids that are non-essential but must be supplied in the diet
What is transcription
information from DNA is copied into RNA
Translation during protein synthesis synthesizes what
a protein from RNA molecule
How many sequencing errors are there
- genetic
- copying
- reading
What is synthesis limiting
incomplete/ low-quality protein source
What is denaturation
- loss function
- destroy all structure except primary
What denatures proteins
HCL - hydrochloric acid
What is pepsin
cleaves proteins into smaller peptides
What breaks down polypeptides
pancreatic and intestinal protease
Amino acids are transported directly to the liver via
portal vein
What is competitive inhibition
consumption of too much of one amino acid
What determines protein quality/completness
- amount of essential amino acids
- protein digestibility
What is PDCAAS
protein digestibility corrected amino acid score
compares the concentration between limiting essential amino acids and test protein
What is DIAAS?
Digestible indispensable amino acid score
protein quality method
determines amino acid digestibility in small int.
What is mutual supplementation
Obtain complete amino acid req from two or more incomplete protein sources
25% of available amino acids are stripped down of what?
nitrogen and used for energy
What is nitrogen balance
nitrogen is taken from protein and balances with the nitrogen excreted by urine
What is positive nitrogen status
body synthesizes more than it degrades
Semi-vegitarian
sometimes seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy
pesco-vegitarian
does not eat poutry
lacto-ovo
does not eat seafood
lactovegitarian
does not eat eggs
ovovegitarian
does not eat dairy
What is bioavailability
rate a nutrient is absorbed and used by the body
Precursors
Inactive vitamins
Provitamins
Inactive vitamins that turn into active in the body
Hydrophobic vitamins
A,D,E,K
Hydrophilic vitamins
B vitamins and vitamin c
What determines shape of proteins
sulfur
two factors that influence vitamin bioavailability
- efficiency of digestion
- previous nutrient intake
when is Glucagon produced from the pancreas
when blood glucose fall
what does liver produce to regulate BP
renin
What are enzymes
protein that mediate metabolic reactions
Anabolic reactions
require energy provided by ATP
Catabolism
break down of body compounds when needed for energy
Does catabolism use condensation or hydrolysis?
hydrolysis - releases energy
What is ATP
transfers small amounts of usable energy to move our muscles
Where does glycolysis take place
cytoplasm
How many ATP are produced in TCA
2
What is glycolysis
glucose converted into pyruvate
How much ATP is produced in glycolysis
2
Glycerol
converted into pyruvate and then acetyl-CoA
Max ATP made in ETC
34
Aerobic metabolism
production of ATP from ETC - requires O2 in final step
Anaerobic metabolism
production of ATP from glycolysis - does not require O2
What is lipolysis
glycerol converted to pyruvate
What is deamination
removal of amine group from amino acids to form keto acid
Where does deamination occur
liver
What is glycogenic
pyruvate
What is ketogenic
Acetyl-CoA
What is the production of non-carb sources
glucogenesis
What is transamination
amine group is transferred to keto to create new amino and keto
where is Thiamin found
Pork, legumes, sunflower seeds, whole grains
what is riboflavin and where can it be found
precursor for FAD
- meat, dairy, eggs, green veg
What is niacin and where can it be found
precursor for NAD and NADP
- meat, fish, peanut butter, mushrooms
Where can pyridoxine be found
protein rich, bananas, spinach
What is folate and where can it be found
protein metabolism
- beef, liver, legumes, beets, leafy greens
What is pantothenic acid
precursor for biosynthesis of coenzyme A
Minerals that play a role in hormonal regulation
- sulfur
- iodine
What is free radical
molecule containing one or more unpaired electrons
What can free radicals lead to
cell damage and death
What are two sources of free radicals
- Endogenous (metabolism)
- Exogenous (pollution, smoking)
What is a superoxide
precursor of reactive O2 species
How does O2 become a superoxide
O2 accepts a single electron during metabolism
What is oxidative stress?
imbalance between production of reactive species and antioxidant defense
How do antioxidants stabilize free radicals
donate electron
What is Vitamin E
Protects other substances from oxidation by being oxidized itself
- veggie oils, almonds, sunflower seed, green leafy vegg
What is Vitamin C
protects water-soluble substances and some fat-soluble from being oxidized by being oxidized itself
citrus fruits, pepper, strawberries, broccoli
How many types of Vitamin A are there?
- Retinal
- Retinol
- Retinoic acid
What is a plant-derived Vitamin A precursor
Beta-carotene
What is beta-carotene
extremely effective antioxidant
-deep orange pigment
What is superoxide dismutase
converts free radical to O2 and hydrogen peroxide
Three types of superoxide dismutase
- Manganese
- Copper
- Zinc
What is catalase
protect the cell from the toxic effects of hydrogen peroxide
What does catalase contain
4 heme rings that pull electrons away from water bonds
What is selenium
converts hydrogen peroxide into water and O2
- seafoods, meats, whole grains
What are examples of cations
sodium and potassium
What are examples of anions
Chloride and phosphate
What electrolytes are predominant in intracellular fluid
potassium and phosphate
What electrolytes are predominate in extracellular fluid
Sodium and chloride
What is central for fluid balance
kidney
What functional unit is a nephron
Kidney
What is ADH
- hormone secreted by the pituitary gland in response to high electrolyte concentration in the blood
What is angiotensin I
Plasma protein activated by renin
What is Angio II
Secretion of aldosterone and increases BP
What is aldosterone
secreted by the adrenal glands
triggers the kidney to reabsorb more sodium and chloride
What is ferritin and hemosiderin
stores iron
What is transferrin
iron carrying protein
What is hepcidin
Hormone to regulate iron balance secreted by the liver
What is heme (ferrous)
high absorption - meat and fish
What is non-heme (ferric)
low absorption -plant
What promotes non-heme iron absorption
Vitamin C
What are iron absorption inhibiting factors
Phytates - inhibiting factor for zince (grains, beans)
oxalates (spinach, beets)
What plays a key factor in hemoglobin synthesis
copper - part of superoxide dismutase
Osteoclasts
erode bone and release calcium
Osteoblasts
build up bone and use calcium
Measures bone density
DEXA
Parathyroid hormone
Raises blood calcium
Calcitonin
Lowers calcium when blood is too high
Osteocalcin
protein secreted by osteoblasts to build bone
What is the gold standard of measuring TEE
Doubly labelled water
What is BMI
Defines underweight, overweight, obese
weight/height
What is basal metabolism
energy is needed to maintain life when a person is at complete rest
What measures lean tissue, bone mineral and fat mass
DEXA
What measures the determination of bone density
Underwater weighing
What measures body density
Bod Pod system
Thrifty gene
Gene allows them to expend less energy that other people
BMR
measured when the person is awake but lying still
What is leptin
Hormone produced by fat cells in the proportion to the amount of fat stored
What is ghlerin
Protein/hormone promotes positive energy balance by stimulating appetite
How long does creatine phosphate store energy
3-15 seconds
How to measure BMR
Calorimetry
- the amount of heat the body releases
How to measure BMR indirectly
Measuring O2 and CO2 levels
What is secreted by the placenta for prep of breast tissue for lactation
estrogen and progesterone
What is prolactin
milk production
What is oxytocin
milk release
How much kcals are needed for milk production
500kcal/day
What % of milk is water
90%
Adequate nutrition is essential for what from the time of conception through the end of the first year or age
Tissue formation, neurologic development, bone growth
Healthy development of the placenta depends of what
Adequate pre-pregnancy nutrition
What are the support tissues for the baby
Uterus
Placenta
Umbilical cord
Amniotic sac
First event of pregnancy
Fertilization and cell division
Fertilized ovum (zygote)
Second event of pregnancy
Implantation
Blastocysts embeds in uterine lining, placenta deelopment begins
What happens at 8 weeks
Complete nervous and digestive symptoms
Well-defined fingers and toes
Facial features
What happens at the last 7 months
Cell division and development of organs
Average birth weight
6.8-7.9 lbs
When is embryo development
2-8 weeks
Critical period
What is embryogenesis
Rapid development stage
When is the fetus susceptible to nutrient deficiencies
First trimester (13-14 weeks)
Folate deficiency
Spina bifida
Primary metabolic fuel of the developing fetus
glucose
Folate intake when pregnant should increase by what
50%
What vitamin regenerates the active form of folate
Vitamin B12
Vitamin C protects from what?
Free-radical that are looking for damage
Lack of vitamin A when pregnant can cause
Cleft lip, heart defects, abnormalities in the CNS
Lack of Vitamin D when pregnant can cause
Preeclampsia, diabetes, asthma
How much water does an infant need
150ml/kg
What does breast milk contain
Omega 3 and 6 fatty acids
Most abundant fatty acid in the brain
DHA
What does breast milk not contain and need in supplement
Vitamin K and D
