West African Nationalism And Decolonisation Flashcards
How did Andrew Cohen describe the Gold Coast?
The most advanced African colony in terms of political ‘maturity’ and ‘fitness’ to rule themselves
- still didn’t believe that independence would be possible for a while, especially in other parts of west Africa where nationalism was high (this is probably just an excuse for Britain to keep their colonial assets for a bit longer)
How did Britain want any change to occur?
For it to be gradual and managed in a way that didn’t damage British economic and political interests
- however, the rise of an African elite during WW2 meant African political representation really was possible and it seems as though Britain just want things done their way
When was the Burns constitution in the Gold Coast drawn up and what did it do?
1946 - established a legislative council of 12 British nominees and 18 elected African members
- this was a massive breakthrough in getting west Africans some political representation
- however, final power still rested in hands of British governor and this caused unrest as protests against British colonial rule fastened
Who founded the Convention People’s party (CPP), when, and what did it do?
Kwame Nkrumah 1949
- pressurised the British administration to make more concessions towards Gold Coast independence
Was the work of the CPP successful?
. Legislative council enlarged and renamed the Legislative Assembly
. Number of people who could vote for the legislative assembly was enlarged
- British governor still had ultimate power.
. 1951 Legislative assembly seats were won 2/3 by CPP (even when Nkrumah was in prison)
Overall, it was clear to Burns that CPP would need to join government to control resistance
- CPP have better organisation than Britain, just give them independence 🤦♂️
How did burns respond to the success of the CPP?
Nkrumah released and got position of PM for Gold Coast in 1952
- members of the CPP took posts as government ministers
This elected government got extensive control over internal affairs, and Nkrumah’s popularity became huge
How did the road for independence for Gold Coast become clear?
. 1956 - plebiscite in British mandate of Togoland overwhelmingly voted in favour of unification with Gold Coast
. Support was so big that new elections were held in 1957 for full adult suffrage across the Gold Coast
When did the Gold Coast get independence and as what?
6th March 1957 as Ghana
How did Nkrumah become controversial after the independence of the Gold Coast?
He became increasingly authoritarian to hold onto power
What was the ‘Richard’s constitution’ in Nigeria?
1946 - new arrangements in Nigeria that allowed for more African representation, but with the governor-general and executive council, which the governor appointed, retaining ultimate power
What was the implication of the ethnical and regional divisions in Nigeria for independence there?
- Britain believed a federation of regional states would be suitable, where three assemblies of the three major regions (West, east and south) could debate local matters and advise British governors in the regions.
- this was in addition to the expanded legislative council to discuss issues affecting the whole of the country
Britain was trying to give the Nigerians a voice to try and exert a gradual move towards independence in a calm but ‘British’ way
Why did Britain change the Richard’s Constitution in Nigeria?
Greater and more efficient pressure for change and independence came from nationalist movements as they wanted to be liberated from any form of colonial rule, even if they had some internal control over affairs such as in the federation
- the Macpherson constitution was created
What did the Macpherson constitution do?
Created in 1951 - extended the right to vote for native Nigerians and created a national council of ministers, answerable to a 185-seat Federal House of Representatives
- stimulated the growth of Nigerian political parties, which competed in elections to gain representation in the new house (getting Nigerians into politics is always a move towards faster independence)
How was the new federal House of Representatives not that powerful in the Macpherson constitution?
. The federation of the regional states in Nigeria were each allowed their own government as well as an elected assembly
- the federal House of Representatives couldn’t overrule the decisions of these regional governments, so that one Nigerian party couldn’t rule over all the regions of Nigeria considering the regional and ethnic divisions there.
How was the Macpherson constitution an example of Britain taking an attempt at divide and rule in Nigeria to try and hold onto it?
. Regional autonomy was expanded by allowing each region to have its own government that could not be overruled by the federal governments
. Even though it seemed on the surface that the federal House of Representatives was an attempt at creating national integration in Nigeria to put them in a better position for independence, Britain kept the supreme power on a regional basis
. By emphasising ethnic divisions, Britain could try and justify their continued presence in trying to ‘control’ local disputes
How did the attempt at divide and rule in Nigeria backfire?
. Regional governments became too powerful while the central government was weak, making national governance that Britain primarily controlled ineffective
. New political parties representing different ethnic groups emerged, making co-operation difficult
. Britain’s policies increased national resistance and nationalist leaders became frustrated with Britain’s manipulation.
The divisions and heightened nationalism meant that Britain were demanded full independence and to grant concessions far quicker than had been hoped
What was the first way that Britain gave in to Nigerian nationalist demands following the dividing Macpherson constitution?
1954 - further federal elections and the Lyttleton constitution furthered regional autonomy, making the central government even weaker
. Central government formed from this election consisted of 3 British officials with 9 ministers from the various regional political parties to try and get a balance between the different regions representation of the entire region of Nigeria
Clearly regional governments were expanding in influence and Britain’s policy of divide and rule was failing
How is Britain’s failure of divide and rule in Nigeria very telling of Britain’s state as an empire?
Britain could no longer command control over ethnic groups like they used to. Colonial people’s had proved that they were capable of autonomy and attempts at divide and rule were futile as nationalist demands posed a challenge to British authority that was carried out the colonies realised Britain was in a vulnerable imperial position post-war
What were the implications of Nigeria being an artificial creation (created by the scramble for africa)?
. It was made up of diverse peoples and regions
. Nationalism there derived more from pan-Africanism than a sense of common Nigerian nationality/identity as this wasn’t really a thing
What were the states of nationalism in the regions of Nigeria after WW2?
. North: Islamic area under emirs (Muslim rulers), where nationalism was anti-western
. West: economically advanced and ambitious community that believed they were capable of independent control
. South: nationalism influenced by European ideas, professionals organisation of teachers, lawyers, traders and independent Christian churches
How did WW2 impact the intensity of nationalism in Nigeria?
Wartime service reinforced the nationalism and feelings of national identity in the younger generation, especially the educated intellectuals who believed they were capable of independent control
How had indigenous Nigerians had some political presence since 1922?
Had an elected legislative council where political thinking could be stimulated and the idea of governing independently could arise
What were the major nationalist independence parties in Nigeria post-WW2 and what drove their creation?
. National council of Nigeria and Cameroon’s (NCNC) - dominated by the Igbo ethnic group
. The action group - dominated by the Yoruba ethnic group
. The Northern People’s Congress (NPC) - dominated by the Hausa and Fulani ethnic groups
They were all created mainly on the basis of regionalism and ethnicity, creating divides in politics where compromise became difficult
Which nationalist independence party in Nigeria had the widest appeal and who commanded it?
NCNC under Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe
What were the beliefs of the Yoruba ethnic group and who did they mainly represent?
. Belief: resisted the concept of unitary government
. Represented the more economically advanced western region
Conflict within the Yoruba community created even more divisions in Nigeria
Who led the Action group and what did they want Nigeria to look like?
. Obafemi Awolowo - very skilled debater and political campaigner (educated)
. Wanted autonomous states with a federal structure, even prepared to support the splitting up of a mid-west state from the western region
How was Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe’s education common of the educated nationalist elite in Africa?
. Received a western education in Nigeria
. Further study in the USA where he was exposed to radical ideas (not just locked up under colonial control)
. Developed a strong sense of African nationalism as a journalist primarily in Lagos, Nigeria from 1937
What was Nnamdi Azikiwe’s main role in Nigerian nationalism?
Helped create the NCNC in 1944 and became its leader
How did Azikiwe have to be very flexible when moving towards the creation of an independent Nigeria?
. Nigerian independence as one nation demanded a federal solution
- Azikiwe had to work with his nationalist rivals that were among the huge religious and ethnic diversity in the different regions of Nigeria
- Azikiwe also had to work with Britain to create a stable Nigerian state
Having to cooperate with your ethnic rivals and the British at the same time who you want to be freed from requires a huge amount of flexibility
When did Azikiwe establish independence in Nigeria and what was the structure of its first government?
1960, also negotiated a deal with the NPC to establish Nigeria’s first government
- Azikiwe was the first president
How was Azikiwe so important in making sure the independence of Nigeria was peaceful while also convincing Britain of this?
. Was able to compromise and win trust of the varied nationalists from the different ethnic communities, creating a more stable Nigerian state after civil war almost broke out.
. He was able to persuade the British that the different regional ethnic groups could work successfully in a federal system, showing that British imperial rule didn’t need to be imposed to avoid ethnic conflict (showed why divide and rule wasn’t needed)
Who primarily led the NPC and who was most powerful in it?
. Mostly led by the western-educated northern Muslims of Nigeria
. Most powerful figure was Ahmadu Bello, the sardauna (war leader) of Sokoto
What did Ahmadu Bello want for Nigeria?
. To protect northern social and political institutions from southern Nigerian influence
. Insisting on maintaining the territorial borders of the northern region, including the areas with non-Muslim populations
Why were constitutional changes so hard to make in Nigeria?
. The huge variety of majority and minority nationalist independence parties in Nigeria spread across huge diversity of ethnic groups with different interests for Nigeria’s future.
. Negotiating with the British government over constitutional changes became a huge case of compromise as it couldn’t be governed to everyone’s interests.
Why did all the different nationalist independence parties in Nigeria end up compromising with each other and Britain?
They all had the long-term goal of Nigerian independence so they were willing to co-operate for that reason, but a sense of national identity isn’t really the reason why co-operation occurred as there wasn’t one simple identity that the Nigerian people felt due to all the ethnic divisions
What three ways did the constitutional changes in Nigeria from 1946-1954 intensify ethnic divisions?
- The political activists from different regions of Nigeria voiced their very different views on what the future of an independent Nigeria would look like
- Tensions between Yoruba and Igbo grew worse as they competed for control
- More power granted to local officials and politicians, created rivalries over market permits, trade licenses and even scholarships for higher education
What did political activists in the north and south of Nigeria want for the future of Nigeria?
South: self-government to promote educational opportunities and economic development
North: emirs demanded firm control on economic and political change
When did the different regions of Nigeria finally get their self-rule? (Not independence yet)
1957 - south and west Nigeria
1959 - Northern Nigeria
This self rule was under a federal constitution (controlled by a central Nigerian government and various states at the same time)
- shared sovereignty
How did Britain make the process towards self rule for Nigeria seem more successful than it was?
Made it appear like a peaceful transition towards self rule, when in reality Britain hadn’t dealt with the ethnic and religious divisions and even exacerbated them by sharing the government in the federal constitution with the heavily divided regions of Nigeria
How was Kwame Nkrumah typical of many post-war nationalist leaders?
. Educated in Catholic mission school and a government teacher training college (all colonial institutions to ‘westernise’ him)
. Studied in Accra (capital of Gold Coast) and was exposed to radical western ideas
. Continued his studies at various unis in USA 1930s-40s and became involved in radical black activism and politics
. Went to London in 1945 to organise fifth pan-African congress in Manchester
How did Nkrumah’s international reputation that he built up in his studies and early life fare him when he returned to the Gold Coast?
. Invited to become general secretary of the United Gold Coast convention (UGGC), which had the goal of national independence for the Gold Coast
How did Nkrumah utilise his growing popularity in the Gold Coast?
He was briefly imprisoned in 1948, almost becoming a martyr for independence
- formed the convention people’s party (CPP), which became so successful due to his popularity that he became PM of Gold Coast between 1953-57
What were some of Nkrumah’s main achievements in fighting for African nationalism?
. Moved gold coast towards full independence as Ghana in 1957
. Became the figurehead for African nationalism
When did Nkrumah become too powerful in Ghana and how did the US respond?
When Ghana became a republic in 1960, Nkrumah was in power but his abuse of power led to a military coup in 1966 (backed by the CIA), where Nkrumah was exiled in Guinea for the remaining 6 years of his life
What were some of Nkrumah’s main political beliefs?
. Pan-Africanism
. Marxist socialism
. Popular nationalism
. Responsible leadership
What is pan-Africanism and how did Nkrumah show it?
Belief that African people should work in political unity for the collective common good of independence
- 1963: Nkrumah was a founder of the organisation of African unity (represented states across Africa dedicated to improving the lives of africans)
What is Marxist socialism?
A belief in the redistribution of wealth to give the poor some control over their lives
Why did Nkrumah believe in Marxist socialism?
Although not aligning with the communist world, he argued that the British empire served the interests of international capitalists that were responsible for the inequality and poverty in Africa
- British rule was an outdated form of government that were holding Britain back
What is popular nationalism in the case of Nkrumah?
Associating yourself with the demands for change emerging from below (fighting for your cause even when you are the ‘underdog’)
Why was it important that Nkrumah had responsible leadership?
Even though he had anti-colonial ideas, he acknowledged the importance of good working relations with the British to get their support so that a stable post-colonial state could be achieved
