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Week Three Flashcards

1
Q

What is a sampling frame and a sampling unit?

A

Sampling frame: the list from which the elements of the population are selected

Sampling unit: any single unit sampled from the population, primary sampling units - entitles selected in the first stage of the sample, secondary sample units - entities selected in the second stage of the sample if there is one

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2
Q

What are the two types of generalisability

A

Sample generalisability: ability to generalise from a subset of a larger population (I.e. Sample) to that population itself. This often occurs through inferential statistics

Cross- population generalisability (external validity): ability to generalise from the findings about one group, population, or setting to other groups, populations or settings

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3
Q

What is a sampling error

A

Any difference between the characteristics of a sample and the characteristics of the population from which it was drawn

The larger the sampling error, the less representative the sample is of the population

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4
Q

What is probability

A

Sample methods that allow us to know in advance how likely it is that any element of a population will be selected

Random selection: everyone in the population has a know / equal chance to be picked

Non-probability: sample methods in which the likelihood of selection is not know in advance

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5
Q

What does probability sampling do

A

Allows researchers to select study subjects to be statistically representative of population they want to learn about (generalisability)

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6
Q

What is simple random sampling?

A

Identifies cases strictly on the basis of chance eg random number tables

Typically every subject has equal probability of being selected

CANNOT do this without a sampling frame that contains every element of the population

Can be done with or without replacement sampling

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7
Q

What is replacement sampling

A

Each element is returned to the sampling frame from which it is selected so that it may be sampled again

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8
Q

What is systematic random sampling?

A

The first element is selected randomly from a list, and then every nth element thereafter is selected

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9
Q

What are the three steps of systematic random sampling?

A

Calculate sampling interval: the total number of cases in pop is divided by the number of cases required in the sample

Identify the first case to be selected: a number within the sampling interval is randomly selected and used to select the first case

Selection of subsequent cases: every nth case is selected, wherein is the sampling interval

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10
Q

What is stratified random sampling

A

Uses information known about key characteristics of the population prior to sampling to make the process more efficient

Often used to ensure that subjects who have a Rare or uncommon characteristics are adequately represented in the sample

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11
Q

What are the two steps of stratified random sampling?

A
  1. Distinguish all elements in the populations (I.e. In the sampling frame) according to their value on some relevant characteristic.
    - that characteristic forms the sampling strata
    - each element must belong to one and only one stratum
  2. Sample elements randomly from within each strata
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12
Q

What is proportionate and disproportionate stratified sampling

A

Proportionate ratified sampling: every group is equally proportional to its size in the population

Disproportionate stratified sampling: proportionate of each group is unite nationally varied from population - useful to include small or underrepresented groups

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13
Q

What is multistage cluster sampling

A

Sampling in which elements are selected in two or more stages

  1. Clusters: preexisting groups of elements in a population - a random sample of clusters is selected
  2. Within clusters: within each cluster a random sample of elements is selected
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14
Q

What is non probability sampling

A

Each member of population is an unknown probability of being selected

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15
Q

What are the four types of non probability sampling

A

Availability or convenience

Snowball

Quota

Purposive/judgment

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16
Q

What is convenience sampling

A

Elements are selected because they are available or easy to find

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17
Q

What is quota sampling

A

Elements are selected to ensure that the sample represents certain characteristics of the population

Similar to stratified probability sampling but generally less rigorous and precise in selection procedures

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18
Q

What is purposive sampling

A

Each sample element is selected for a purpose. Usually because if the unique position of the sample elements

May involve studying the entire population of some limited group or a subset of a population

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19
Q

What is snowball sampling

A

Sample elements are selected as they are identified by successive informants

Useful for hard to reach populations in which members are interconnected

20
Q

What is random sampling error

A

Refers to the difference between a sample statistic and the true value in the population due solely to chance

21
Q

What is sampling distribution

A

Statisticians estimate the probability that a sampling result is representative of a population using this

Estimates the margin of error and confidence interval around the sample statistic

Sampling distribution for many statistics is a normal or bell shape

22
Q

What is systematic sampling error

A

Refers to differences between the sample and population due to some problem with the sampling method

23
Q

What is ecological fallacy and reductionism

A

Eco: a researcher draws conclusions about individual level processes from group level data

Reductionism: a researcher draws conclusions about group level processes from individual level data

24
Q

What are the two types of causal explanations

A

Quantitative (nomothetic)

Qualitative (idiographic)

25
What is nomothetic causal explanation?
Quantitative Involved the belief that variations in an independent variable will be followed by variation in the dependent variable, when all other things are equal (ceteris pariaus) The value of cases on the dependent variable differs from what their values would have been in the absence of variation in the indecent variable (counterfactual)
26
What is the idiographic causal explanation
When a series of concrete events, thoughts or actions result in a particular event or individual outcome Includes statements of inital conditions and then relates a series of events st different times that led to outcome Explanation is concerned w context and deterministic Focus on time order and causal mechanism
27
What is the five criteria for causation in research design
Empirical association (required) Time order (required) Nonspuriousness (required) Mechanism Context
28
Why is empirical association
Variation in one variable is related to variation in another Relationship must be observed - cannot be assumed or believed The independent variable and the dependent variable must vary together Same direction of variation - positive associations Opposite direction - negative associations
29
What is time order
The change in the independent variable must occur before the change in the dependent variable
30
What is nonspuriousness
A relationship between two variables that is not due to variation in a third variable When this third variable (an extraneous variable) cause the variation, it creates a spurious relationship between the independent and dependent variable
31
What is causal mechanism
Process that creates the connection between variation in an independent variable and the variation in the dependent variable it is hypothesised to cause it
32
What are the two experimental research designs and two non-experimental?
Experimental: True experiments Quasi experiments Non experimental Cross-sectional Longitudinal
33
What are the three requirements of true experiments
1. An experimental group that is reviewing condition and one control group that is not 2. Must have random group assignment 3. Must have assessment of change (pre and post) in both groups both change is elected Research design is quasi-experiment when all but one requirements are met
34
Explain cross sectional designs
Observations are made at one time point Independent variable is fixed at some point prior to the variation in the dependent variable You believe respondents can give you reliable reports of what happened to them or what they thought at some earlier time Measures are based on accurate records that contain information in cases in earlier periods You know that the value of the dependent variable was similar for all cases prior to the treatment
35
What are the three types of longitudinal design
Repeated cross sectional design Fixed sample panel designs Event based designs
36
What is repeated cross sectional design
Trend Data is collected at two or more points in time from different samples of the same population Appropriate design when the goal is to determine whether a population has changed over time
37
What is fixed sample panel design
Data are collected from the same individuals (the panel) at two or more points in time Issues: cost and subject attrition - leaving
38
What is event design
Event or cohort based design Data are collected at two or more point in time from individuals in a cohort Types of cohorts: birth, seniority, school etc Can be repeated cross sectional design or a type of panel design
39
What is individual and aggregate matching
Two selection methods for quasi experimental Individual: individual cases in the treatment groups are matched with similar individuals in the control group Aggregate: using group level data, the treatment group is matched to similar control group
40
What is internal validity and it's five sources
Ability to yield valid conclusions is determined by comparability of experimental and control groups. Sources: Selection bus Endogenous change External events Contamination Treatment misidentification
41
What is selection bias
Treatment and comparison group are different at beginning or end of study - one group has more experience, education etc Differential attrition is one type of selection bias: groups become different because for various reasons subjects are more likely to drop out of groups A pretest helps determine whether selection bias exists and controls for it
42
What is endogenous change?
Occurs when natural developments in the subjects, independent of the experimental treatment, account for some or all of the observed changes between pretest and post-tests Three specific threats: - testing: pre-test influenced post-test scored because subject learn something earlier and react different Maturation: part of natural maturational experience, subjects respond differently on the post-test than they did in the pre- test Regression to the mean: subjects experience cyclical or episodic changes that result in different posttest scores
43
What is contamination
Occurs when the control group is in some way affected by or affects the treatment groups Two types: Compensatory rivalry: control group member works harder to make up for not having treatment or intervention Demoralisation: control group member feels left out and becomes worse than he/she would have been without study
44
What is treatment misidentification
Occurs when the treatment itself does not cause the outcome but does cause some intervening process the researchers is not aware of Sources: The halo effect: staff too excited toward certain group Placebo effect: improve because of expectation not treatment Hawthorne effect: subjects may change because more attention is being paid to them
45
What is external validity
The application of a treatment across subgroups within an experiment and/or across different populations, times or settings Sample generalisability
46
What is factorial survey design
Can increase generalisability Embed the features of true experiments into a survey design in order to maximise generalisability Randomly selected subsets of respondents are asked different questions or asked to respond to different vignettes Allows researchers to determine the causal effect of the variables represented by these differences
47
What is the Institutional review board?
Committee that review research proposals to ensure that research is abiding by ethical principles Required for every institution that seeks federal funding for biomedical or behavioural research on human subjects

Social Science (14 decks)

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