Week 8.2 - Digital Development in the Age of Global Production Networks Flashcards

1
Q

Why do tech firms prefer general terms like ‘digital technology’, ‘digitalisation’, and ‘data’?

A

To make their strategies seem inevitable and universal, rather than contestable transformations

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2
Q

What happens during ‘moments’ of digitalisation in a sector?

A

New interests enter and attempt to renegotiate power but must still contend with existing actors

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3
Q

Who are some actors that tech platforms must contend with in digitalisation efforts?

A

Public policy actors, politicians, civil society, and other businesses

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4
Q

Do tech platforms act alone when entering the development space?

A

No, they often collaborate with other actors despite having core commercial interests

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5
Q

How do some media and economic accounts misrepresent digitalisation?

A

By equating technological affordances with actual impacts and ignoring the difficulty of scaling and power dynamics

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6
Q

Is it easy for developers to scale digital technologies to poorer or rural users?

A

No, scaling requires extensive outreach and an iterative process due to the influence of informal power brokers

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7
Q

What makes disintermediation difficult in rural or low-income settings?

A

Informal intermediaries are deeply embedded, making it hard to bypass them

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8
Q

How do tech firms integrate themselves into public policy?

A

By investing in infrastructure, training, and offering cost-saving services

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9
Q

What kinds of alliances do tech firms form to shape digital development?

A

Alliances with international organisations and non-profits with shared or commercial interests

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10
Q

How do tech firms use research to influence policy?

A

By funding research in areas like fintech and behavioural economics that align with their capabilities

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11
Q

What role do tech firms play in academic research?

A

They provide access to big data and collaborate directly with researchers

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12
Q

How do tech firms present themselves in global governance discussions?

A

As experts in forums like the ITU and WTO e-commerce meetings

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13
Q

What political tactic do tech firms use to shape regulations?

A

Lobbying

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14
Q

Does technical affordance automatically lead to impact?

A

No, affordance does not equal impact

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15
Q

What is a common issue in respected publications regarding digital technologies?

A

They often contain unverified claims about digital applications

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16
Q

What myth exists around disintermediation in digital development?

A

That it will occur almost magically without confronting real-world complexities

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17
Q

Are claims about digital apps like Digifarm always verified before being celebrated?

A

No, many apps are labelled successful before proper evaluation

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18
Q

How are low-income countries represented in digital trade talks?

A

They remain underrepresented

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19
Q

What does underrepresentation of low-income countries risk?

A

It risks creating one-size-fits-all global rules driven by advanced economies

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20
Q

What is the consequence of excluding low-income country voices in digital discussions?

A

Legitimate development concerns may be overlooked

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21
Q

How should revolutionary digital development claims be treated?

A

With skepticism until solid evidence is available

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22
Q

What specific metric should be scrutinised in digital impact assessments?

A

The difference between users and active users

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23
Q

What was the Seacom cable project?

A

A 2009 initiative to bring fiber optic internet to East Africa

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24
Q

Is the internet a single unified web?

A

No, it’s a network of intermediated networks

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25
Q

What characterises wired internet infrastructure?

A

Higher upfront costs but cheaper and faster in the long run (e.g. copper wires, fiber optics)

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26
Q

What characterises wireless internet infrastructure?

A

Lower upfront costs but more expensive over time (e.g. radio, GSM, LTE, Starlink)

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27
Q

What is the role of the cross-border network in the data infrastructure supply chain?

A

It connects service centers to the global internet over distances typically under 1000km

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28
Q

What is the function of the middle-mile network?

A

It links larger cities and routes data to service centers over 10–1000km

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29
Q

What does the last mile of internet access refer to?

A

It distributes internet from the middle-mile network to homes and businesses within 1–5km

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30
Q

What is the function of a firewall in IP networks?

A

It inspects incoming traffic based on administrator-defined rules to protect or censor access

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31
Q

What does an IP address represent?

A

It identifies a physical internet connection, situating it both virtually and often geographically

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32
Q

How does a firewall assess incoming internet messages?

A

It uses rules and checks the IP address to determine if the data is trustworthy, malicious, or illegal

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33
Q

What shapes people’s experience of digital connectivity?

A

It is shaped by both physical geography and social-political context

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34
Q

What are examples of application platforms in digital infrastructure?

A

E-commerce, industrial platforms, and tools like Digifarm

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35
Q

What services are included in web services infrastructure?

A

Cloud computing, servers, and data center services

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36
Q

What devices fall under retail digital devices?

A

Mobile phones, tablets, PCs/laptops, and modems

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37
Q

What comprises national digital infrastructure?

A

National fiber optic networks and mobile technologies like 3G, 4G, and 5G

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38
Q

What makes up international infrastructure?

A

Submarine, terrestrial, and satellite communication links

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39
Q

What is digital governance?

A

It includes standards, laws, policies, and norms governing digital systems

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40
Q

What is an API in digital systems?

A

A set of communication protocols enabling software components to interact

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41
Q

What is the purpose of an open API?

A

To allow third-party developers to build within a platform’s backend, increasing interoperability and flexibility

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42
Q

How do platforms facilitate interaction among users and developers?

A

Through a multi-sided architecture using APIs

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43
Q

How does openness and interoperability benefit platforms?

A

It allows third-party developers to scale and integrate, reducing redundancy

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44
Q

What market effect does growing participation on a platform cause?

A

Network effects lead to greater centralisation and increased market share for the platform operator

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45
Q

How do platform operators control the platform economy?

A

They set market terms and entry conditions aligned with their commercial interests, influencing behaviour

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46
Q

Do all business platforms operate in the same way?

A

No, they differ in structure, objectives, and revenue models

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47
Q

What do e-commerce or consumer-facing platforms do?

A

They match supply and demand, centralise market data, and generate revenue through data and advertising

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48
Q

What do industrial or innovation platforms coordinate?

A

They manage production across firm boundaries with less centralised data and revenue from subscriptions or productivity gains

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49
Q

Why are industrial platforms more fragmented?

A

Due to sector-specific expertise, local incumbents, and less standardised data flows

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50
Q

How does ideological orientation affect digital infrastructure?

A

It influences coverage and cost of services for different populations

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51
Q

What do ICTs complement rather than replace?

A

They complement infrastructures like electricity, roads, finance, literacy, political power, and more

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52
Q

What percentage of non-users in low- and middle-income countries cite digital literacy issues?

A

Nearly 70% are held back due to digital literacy deficiencies

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53
Q

What cost reductions does digital infrastructure offer?

A

It lowers the cost of retrieving information, coordination, and transactions

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54
Q

How does transport infrastructure improve trade?

A

By reducing the costs of physically moving goods across borders

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55
Q

What impact do electricity, water, and waste infrastructure have?

A

They reduce domestic production costs per worker

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56
Q

How do knowledge infrastructures help production?

A

They lower the cost of innovation and skilled labor production

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57
Q

What happens when digital and transport infrastructure are combined without others?

A

Trade efficiency improves but domestic production becomes less competitive

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58
Q

What is the result of combining digital, transport, and utility infrastructure?

A

It enables production but usually at low value and with disadvantageous terms of trade

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59
Q

What occurs when knowledge infrastructure is added without production policy?

A

It generates relevant knowledge, but risks brain drain and unemployment if local industry doesn’t absorb it

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60
Q

What is required to achieve higher value production and better trade terms?

A

All four infrastructures—digital, transport, utilities, and knowledge—must be developed together

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61
Q

Can countries leapfrog development by focusing on digital infrastructure alone?

A

No, infrastructural complementarity is necessary, and leapfrogging is not possible without it

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62
Q

What challenge do low and middle-income countries face with ICT professionals?

A

They are educating ICT professionals but not retaining them due to brain drain caused by large wage differentials

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63
Q

What are two ways governments can treat ICT?

A

As a business or as a public utility used for internal government functions

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64
Q

What are some common areas of digital governance policy?

A

Internet filtering, privacy, security, and censorship

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65
Q

What does data localisation require?

A

It mandates foreign firms to store data within the country, necessitating local data centres

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66
Q

What are local content requirements?

A

Rules requiring foreign firms to use local hardware or media content

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67
Q

What is an example of local content enforcement?

A

Huawei in Algeria for hardware or Netflix being required to use local film content

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68
Q

What is source code transfer in governance?

A

A requirement for foreign firms to share or transfer source code to the host government

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69
Q

What is the purpose of digital tariffs or taxes?

A

To regulate and monetise digital services provided by foreign firms

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70
Q

How do governments support domestic champions?

A

Through financial aid or preferential tenders

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71
Q

What legal tools can be used to limit platform monopolies?

A

Tougher competition and anti-trust laws

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72
Q

What stance has the US historically taken on digital protectionism?

A

It has opposed it, promoting a free internet influenced by libertarian tech values

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73
Q

What role did US tech firms play during the Obama administration?

A

They became some of the most powerful lobbying groups in Washington and Brussels

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74
Q

Why has the US pushed for digital freedom in trade agreements?

A

Because such agreements are enforceable and can shape global digital rules

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75
Q

What did the US do when global trade negotiations didn’t go its way?

A

It pivoted to regional and plurilateral trade agreements

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76
Q

Why do countries like China and India have more leverage in digital trade?

A

Because US firms are eager to access their large markets

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77
Q

Why do African countries have less leverage in digital trade?

A

Because their markets are smaller and less valuable to US firms

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78
Q

Which African countries have pushed back against WTO digital rules?

A

South Africa and Rwanda, as part of the Africa Group

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79
Q

How has the US changed its WTO e-commerce agenda recently?

A

It has backed away and is moving to end the de minimis exemption to counter China’s digital policy

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80
Q

What is the de minimis exemption in digital trade?

A

It allows small-value imports to enter without duties, fueling US imports from Chinese platforms

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81
Q

Which companies have benefited most from the de minimis exemption?

A

Temu and Shein, which are estimated to account for 30% of such US imports

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82
Q

Why is it difficult to separate ‘values’ from ‘value’ in digital governance?

A

Because political, moral, and economic motives often overlap

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83
Q

How does the US conflate values and value in its digital agenda?

A

It ties press freedom to competitive advantage

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84
Q

What is the purpose of China’s Great Firewall?

A

It represents digital protectionism and censorship while promoting China’s global digital ambitions

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85
Q

What dual purpose does the EU’s GDPR serve?

A

It protects privacy and acts as an economic strategy to build a digital market

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86
Q

What is Ethiopia and Rwanda’s approach to digital governance?

A

They pursue a ‘Developmental Media State’ model

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87
Q

What defines a ‘rogue’ digital state?

A

Business-state relations that tolerate or support hackers in exchange for political or economic favours

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88
Q

What does allocative efficiency mean in neo-classical economics?

A

It is achieved when capital and data flow freely to capital-scarce regions, maximizing social welfare

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89
Q

What do neo-classical economists see as barriers to allocative efficiency?

A

Any friction or market distortion that diverts resources away from productive investment

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90
Q

What do neo-classical economists say about IP and patents?

A

They reduce welfare in the short term but are necessary to incentivise long-term innovation

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91
Q

Why are patents seen as beneficial despite being market distortions?

A

Because they create incentives for risky research and development

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92
Q

When did neoliberalism rise in prominence?

A

It emerged in the 1940s and rose to dominance in the 1980s

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93
Q

What does neoliberalism say about profit and price signals?

A

That they will efficiently allocate capital if trade barriers are removed

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94
Q

How do neoliberal policies treat tariffs and exchange rates?

A

They advocate cutting tariffs and liberalising exchange rates to align domestic prices with global prices

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95
Q

How do neoliberals view state support for inefficient industries?

A

They argue for removing support and defunding inefficient parastatals or national champions

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96
Q

What is the purpose of locking regulation at a supranational level?

A

To harmonise rules across economies and prevent capture by national politics or populism

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97
Q

What do neoliberals believe about regulating digital technologies globally?

A

That global rules are needed to harmonise digital services so firms can maximise efficiency

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98
Q

What is currently being done about digital protectionism?

A

There is a push to build evidence against it

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99
Q

What does the Digital STRI do?

A

It identifies, catalogues, and quantifies barriers to trade in digitally enabled services

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100
Q

How does the Digital STRI help policymakers?

A

It helps them identify regulatory bottlenecks and design policies for more competitive digital trade

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101
Q

What do New Institutional Economists believe about markets and institutions?

A

That markets are best for growth, but weak institutions in developing countries make them hard to function

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102
Q

What is the problem with informal property rights?

A

They create risks, dissuade investment, and limit access to credit

103
Q

What problems arise from information asymmetries?

A

Poor access to information leads to misallocation of resources and exploitation by middlemen

104
Q

What issues stem from high transaction costs?

A

Lack of trust leads to inefficient investment choices based on familiarity, not merit

105
Q

How do New Institutional Economists believe markets can work better?

A

By strengthening property rights, improving information flows, and reducing transaction costs

106
Q

How do New Institutional Economists view digital technologies?

A

As tools to strengthen markets by documenting rights, credit histories, and lowering transaction costs

107
Q

What is GhanaPostGPS?

A

Ghana’s digital property system

108
Q

What is Bitland in Ghana?

A

A blockchain-based land registration system

109
Q

What is MAST and where is it used?

A

The Mobile Application to Secure Tenure, used by USAID in Tanzania and Zambia

110
Q

What is the Kadaster initiative in Jordan?

A

A project to digitise land records

111
Q

What is Aadhaar in India used for?

A

A biometric ID system that links identity to land transactions to reduce fraud

112
Q

Why are market information and agronomic apps important?

A

They address information asymmetries and compensate for underinvestment in public services

113
Q

What does M-Cow in Kenya provide?

A

Information on prices, weather, and livestock/crop health

114
Q

What is Abacus in Kenya used for?

A

To inform local and foreign investors about business opportunities

115
Q

What do digital marketplaces aim to do?

A

Reduce transaction costs and cut out the middleman

116
Q

What are examples of G2P digital payments?

A

Bourse Familiale (Senegal) and SAGE (Uganda)

117
Q

What is Kopo Kopo in Kenya?

A

A P2B digital payment service

118
Q

What is BambaPos in Kenya?

A

A digital point-of-sale system

119
Q

What are examples of B2B digital payment services?

A

Cellulant and ConnectAfrica in Kenya

120
Q

What is Nomanini in Kenya designed for?

A

To facilitate informal economy peer-to-peer payments

121
Q

What is Eastpesa used for?

A

Cross-border forex and payments in East Africa

122
Q

What is Bitpesa in Kenya?

A

A blockchain-based money transfer platform

123
Q

What are payment aggregators and examples?

A

Tools for bulk payments like InTouch (Senegal) and Yo Uganda (Uganda)

124
Q

What sectors are targeted for digital auction reform?

A

Tea, flower, and coffee sectors, as well as marketing boards

125
Q

How do digital financial services help users?

A

By offering small credit to build financial identities and credit histories

126
Q

What does Jumo in Kenya offer?

A

A platform where SMEs share behavioural data to create financial identities

127
Q

What is Tala’s role in Kenya?

A

It provides credit scores for customers to financial institutions

128
Q

What is the main idea of behavioural economics?

A

People are not rational utility-maximisers and are influenced by social, cultural, and psychological factors

129
Q

How is growth still understood in behavioural economics?

A

As allocative efficiency, though the assumption of free will achieving it is challenged

130
Q

What role do digital platforms play in behavioural economics?

A

They serve as infrastructure to ‘nudge’ people toward “right” decisions

131
Q

What are developmental platforms designed to do?

A

Create closed-loop systems that nudge people into making ‘right’ decisions

132
Q

What is the main focus of heterodox economics?

A

Structural transformation into higher-value, knowledge-intensive sectors with barriers to entry

133
Q

What is the traditional and updated understanding of structural transformation?

A

Traditionally industrialisation, now adapted to include technological changes

134
Q

How are digital platforms viewed in heterodox economics?

A

As infrastructure to restructure production and enable rent capture

135
Q

How does academic economics justify IP law?

A

Though it reduces short-term welfare, it’s needed to incentivise long-term innovation

136
Q

How do heterodox economists view industrial policies?

A

As necessary for long-term learning and development, especially in developing countries

137
Q

What is embedded liberalism?

A

A post-war European idea that free markets should be socially embedded via welfare, labour, and environmental protections

138
Q

What role do trade agreements play in embedded liberalism?

A

They include ‘inefficient’ but socially desirable protections like labour and environmental rules

139
Q

What determines which countries can carve out exceptions in global rules?

A

Their bargaining power and political economy

140
Q

What are national policymakers typically concerned with?

A

Maximising national profits and socially embedding liberalism to protect society

141
Q

What do private businesses typically seek?

A

Profit maximisation for themselves, not necessarily aligned with public interest

142
Q

How can private actors gain rents through governance?

A

By erecting standards and certifications that act as lucrative barriers

143
Q

Do high-income countries always follow the same economic paradigm domestically and abroad?

A

No, they may disguise industrial policies at home as national security or environmental concerns

144
Q

What is Business Process Outsourcing (BPO)?

A

BPO is when internal business tasks like call centers, accounting, or engineering are outsourced to countries like India, the Philippines, or Kenya

145
Q

What enables the rise of BPO?

A

The global penetration of digital technologies and infrastructure enables BPO by stretching global value chains and transforming firm processes

146
Q

What did Jack Welch argue was necessary to quantify and manage business tasks?

A

Systems of measurement, surveillance, quantification, and routinisation

147
Q

How are tasks simplified in Welch’s system?

A

Tasks are progressively simplified to reduce skill and cognition in non-core tasks while identifying high-value core tasks

148
Q

Where do high-skill tasks remain and why?

A

In high-wage economies with existing investments and lower risks, protected by barriers to entry (Schumpeterian rents)

149
Q

How are simplified tasks relocated?

A

By seeking the lowest cost-capability ratio through outsourcing or FDI, aiming for cost arbitrage despite risks

150
Q

What does the smile curve represent?

A

It shows the skill and complexity levels at different production stages from R&D to sales

151
Q

What is the positive interpretation of the smile curve?

A

That simplifying production brings investment and opportunities to new regions

152
Q

What is the negative interpretation of the smile curve?

A

That capital enters new regions but strips away knowledge spillovers once associated with FDI (“adverse incorporation”)

153
Q

What does the World Bank say about data-enabled services in global trade?

A

They create new trade opportunities for countries that previously lagged in global market access

154
Q

What role did ISI play in India’s BPO development?

A

It helped establish domestic conglomerates in the 1970s

155
Q

What enabled India’s success in upgrading?

A

Long-term investment in engineering and labour migration to the US built networks and credibility

156
Q

What are the outcomes of India’s BPO strategy?

A

It achieved job creation and upgrading but also increased inequality and limited linkages

157
Q

How has India’s upgrading affected others?

A

It has restructured production and removed knowledge rents, making its development path harder to replicate

158
Q

What characterises the Philippines’ BPO sector?

A

It is almost entirely foreign-owned and focused on slotting into multinational networks

159
Q

What is the economic impact of the BPO sector in the Philippines?

A

High employment but low domestic capability development and dependence on foreign firms

160
Q

Where have BPO-generated rents flowed in the Philippines?

A

Into real estate, imports, and urban services

161
Q

What limited Kenya’s BPO success?

A

Domestic ownership lacked experience and could not manage production or reputation effectively

162
Q

Why did government support in Kenya fail?

A

It lacked targeted investment and reciprocal control mechanisms, damaging the sector’s credibility

163
Q

What is Kenya’s current BPO direction?

A

It’s shifting toward software, startups, social impact sourcing, and attracting foreign BPOs

164
Q

Why has Kenya struggled to become a low-cost hub?

A

Despite having software skills, it faces brain drain and hasn’t established cost competitiveness

165
Q

What is the aim of China’s Digital Silk Road?

A

To lead the global digital economy and break barriers against China-based digital firms

166
Q

What did China promote in 2014 regarding digital trade?

A

It denounced digital protectionism and called for harmonised laws for online marketplaces

167
Q

What milestone occurred in 2015 for the Digital Silk Road?

A

Four cross-border cables were built connecting China and ASEAN, praised for advancing regional integration

168
Q

What is the basic purpose of the Digital Silk Road?

A

To enhance China’s influence in the global digital communication order

169
Q

What policies define China’s digital state capitalism?

A

State-led R&D, loans, the Belt and Road Initiative, and support for state-linked and private tech firms

170
Q

How does China use training in its digital strategy?

A

By building global linkages through migrant networks and treating training as a business strategy

171
Q

What defines the first wave of China’s digital expansion?

A

Infrastructure and data centers through firms like Huawei and ZTE

172
Q

What defines the second wave?

A

ICT equipment and software provision, including Transsion’s mobile phones in Africa

173
Q

What defines the third wave?

A

Digital products, social media, and e-commerce via Tencent, Baidu, Alibaba, JD.com, and regional acquisitions

174
Q

What additional roles do markets serve for China?

A

As sources of raw materials, labour, data, and as recipients of digital FDI and political influence

175
Q

What are the benefits of infrastructure and data centers?

A

Lower costs, faster speeds, greater productivity, and potential for digital sovereignty

176
Q

What are the heterodox concerns with infrastructure expansion?

A

Emphasis on local content policies to encourage learning and spillovers

177
Q

What are the impacts of Chinese e-commerce access?

A

Cheaper goods for consumers but increased competition undermines local producers and ‘natural protection’

178
Q

What role does ‘de minimis’ play in digital trade tensions?

A

It facilitates Chinese coordination of small trades, increasing imports and competition

179
Q

What are the trade-offs of access to digital service platforms?

A

New client opportunities versus downward pressure on wages and risks of data monopolies

180
Q

How is the global economy changing?

A

It is becoming increasingly digital, affecting trade in both goods and services

181
Q

Why is the internet important for trade today?

A

It, along with cross-border data flows, has become a key channel for international trade

182
Q

How are countries using internet governance policies?

A

They use them for economic and trade purposes, creating challenges to existing trade rules and prompting demands for new ones

183
Q

What role is the US playing in digital trade?

A

The US is leading efforts to create new digital trade rules that discipline national internet policies and liberalise digital trade

184
Q

What does digital trade include?

A

All trade that is digitally enabled, whether goods or services are delivered digitally or physically

185
Q

What are examples of digital trade?

A

E-commerce, digital services like software, music, cloud computing, IoT, and autonomous vehicles

186
Q

How is digitalisation affecting trade classifications?

A

It blurs the lines between goods and services and challenges traditional product classifications

187
Q

What is the role of data in trade?

A

Data is now crucial for trade, yet existing trade agreements don’t fully account for it

188
Q

How has the trade regime evolved?

A

It has expanded from focusing on tariffs to include intellectual property, services, and investment

189
Q

What are “deep” trade rules?

A

They govern domestic regulatory frameworks, unlike earlier “shallow” rules that focused only on tariffs and quotas

190
Q

How do powerful states use trade agreements?

A

They use them to promote their own economic agendas

191
Q

What is regime shifting in trade governance?

A

Moving digital governance issues to more favourable regulatory bodies like trade negotiations

192
Q

What is forum shifting?

A

Negotiating digital trade deals at bilateral or regional levels when progress is stalled at the WTO

193
Q

What is competitive regime creation?

A

Creating new institutions or agreements like the TPP to bypass resistance at existing ones

194
Q

What are classification issues in digital trade?

A

Products that were once physical, like books or software, are now digital, raising questions over whether they fall under GATT (goods) or GATS (services)

195
Q

What are the WTO’s modes of supply, and how does digital trade challenge them?

A

Digital trade does not fit neatly into the WTO’s four service trade modes, especially between Mode 1 (cross-border) and Mode 2 (consumption abroad)

196
Q

What is the WTO’s stance on digital tariffs?

A

It has had a moratorium on e-commerce tariffs since 1998, which countries like India and South Africa want to end due to lost tariff revenue

197
Q

Why are new digital trade rules being proposed?

A

Because national internet policies increasingly impact trade and need to be regulated or liberalised

198
Q

What is internet filtering and who uses it?

A

Blocking access to foreign digital services, as seen with China’s “Great Firewall”

199
Q

What is data localisation?

A

A policy requiring companies to store data within national borders, raising costs for foreign digital firms

200
Q

What are source code and encryption transfer requirements?

A

Rules that require foreign firms to give governments access to source code or encryption keys for market access

201
Q

What is China’s approach to digital trade and governance?

A

China uses internet filtering, data localisation, and forced technology transfers to promote domestic tech firms and integrate digital trade into industrial policy

202
Q

How does the EU approach digital governance?

A

The EU prioritises privacy and data protection via GDPR and mixes liberalisation with strategic digital policies through the Digital Single Market

203
Q

How do EU member states differ in digital trade policy?

A

Some like the UK and Nordics favour liberalisation, while France and Germany push for strategic policies

204
Q

What are other countries like India, Brazil, and Nigeria doing?

A

They adopt policies like data localisation and content regulation

205
Q

How does the US promote digital trade rules?

A

Through lobbying by major tech firms and USTR policies supporting free data flows and protections from liability

206
Q

What is the WTO’s position on digital trade rules?

A

The US and EU support them, but developing countries like India and the Africa Group resist moving forward

207
Q

What role do regional and bilateral agreements play?

A

They include binding digital trade rules, as seen in the CPTPP, USMCA, and EU’s more privacy-focused approach

208
Q

What are the main goals of the digital trade agenda?

A

To prohibit digital tariffs, ensure free data flows, ban localisation, prevent forced code transfers, facilitate paperless trade, and harmonise liability rules

209
Q

How does the digital trade agenda handle customs duties?

A

It aims to prohibit duties on digital goods like software, music, and movies

210
Q

What does the agenda seek for cross-border data?

A

It promotes free data flows and bans localisation requirements

211
Q

What protections are included for digital firms?

A

It includes bans on forced source code/encryption sharing and shields firms from liability for third-party content

212
Q

How does the agenda facilitate digital trade?

A

Through support for electronic authentication, digital documents, and harmonised regulatory practices

213
Q

How are digital technologies impacting industrial manufacturing?

A

They are transforming manufacturing by enabling optimisation, automation, and data-driven processes

214
Q

What role do Industrial Internet Platforms (IIPs) play in global value chains (GVCs)?

A

They enable process optimisation, predictive maintenance, and data-driven decision-making within GVCs

215
Q

Why is data considered an important intangible asset in GVCs?

A

Because it holds increasing value and supports efficiency, innovation, and decision-making

216
Q

What other intangible assets are critical in GVCs?

A

Patents, brands, and interorganisational relationships are essential knowledge-based production factors

217
Q

What trend is seen with intangible assets across industries?

A

They are generating a growing share of revenues across sectors

218
Q

What does the Internet of Things (IoT) enable in manufacturing?

A

It allows real-time data collection and analysis

219
Q

What are the benefits of data analysis in manufacturing?

A

It enables process optimisation, lifecycle product improvement, and B2B matchmaking

220
Q

How do IIPs facilitate manufacturing digitalisation?

A

By providing platforms for data-driven industrial solutions

221
Q

What are innovation platforms in industry?

A

Platforms that integrate complementary software into a shared ecosystem

222
Q

What are transaction platforms used for?

A

They facilitate B2B trade by connecting manufacturers with suppliers

223
Q

How do platforms generate revenue?

A

Through subscriptions, transaction fees, and value-added services

224
Q

What is the focus of Production-Centred Platforms (PCPs)?

A

To optimise manufacturing processes using real-time data

225
Q

What is the focus of Distribution-Centred Platforms (DCPs)?

A

To enhance sourcing and logistics in supply chains

226
Q

How do PCPs help manufacturers optimise production?

A

By using real-time analytics for improved efficiency

227
Q

What predictive tools do PCPs offer?

A

Predictive maintenance systems that forecast equipment failures

228
Q

What are “digital twins” used for in PCPs?

A

To simulate and improve manufacturing scenarios

229
Q

What kind of software do PCPs offer?

A

SaaS solutions for monitoring and managing production flows

230
Q

Why must PCP architectures be open and interoperable?

A

Because of the diversity in machine types and software systems in industrial settings

231
Q

What challenges do PCPs face regarding data sharing?

A

Companies hesitate due to security and control concerns

232
Q

Why is dominance hard for PCPs to establish?

A

Because the industrial ecosystem is highly fragmented

233
Q

Why do PCPs need third-party developers?

A

To build a functional and competitive ecosystem around the platform

234
Q

What is a common PCP revenue model?

A

Subscription-based access to software and analytics

235
Q

What is a freemium model in PCPs?

A

Basic services are free, while premium features require payment

236
Q

How do consulting services contribute to PCP revenue?

A

By helping firms integrate data-driven tools into their operations

237
Q

Why can’t PCPs create “winner-takes-all” markets?

A

Because firms are reluctant to share data, limiting scalability

238
Q

Why can’t industrial data be monopolised like consumer data?

A

Because the value lies in productivity enhancement, not control

239
Q

What determines PCP platform success?

A

Their ability to improve productivity, not dominate users

240
Q

What function do DCPs perform?

A

They operate as B2B e-commerce marketplaces

241
Q

How do DCPs reduce transaction costs?

A

By automating processes like order handling and supplier matching

242
Q

What sourcing solutions do DCPs offer during disruptions?

A

Flexible supplier networks that adapt to disruptions like COVID-19

243
Q

What do DCPs build to manage suppliers?

A

Networks of evaluated manufacturing partners

244
Q

How are suppliers evaluated by DCPs?

A

Based on quality, delivery, and customer feedback

245
Q

What role does AI play in DCP pricing?

A

AI tools analyse supply-demand dynamics and historical data for pricing

246
Q

Do DCPs allow direct supplier interaction?

A

Some restrict direct contact to enforce transactions through the platform

247
Q

How do DCPs earn revenue?

A

Through commission fees on transactions

248
Q

What are DCP value-added services?

A

Services like quality control and design verification

249
Q

Can DCPs monetise data?

A

Yes, they can analyse industrial data like CAD files or pricing trends

250
Q

What drives platform dominance in DCPs?

A

Strong cross-side network effects where more buyers attract more suppliers

251
Q

How do DCPs influence supplier pricing?

A

By setting pricing benchmarks

252
Q

What is the risk of global supplier competition?

A

A race to the bottom, with intense price and efficiency pressure

253
Q

What is a long-term risk with DCPs?

A

They may evolve into monopolies, similar to Amazon in retail