Week 10.2 - Climate Crisis and Challenges for Development Flashcards
How did the pandemic reinforce the need for structural transformation?
It underscored the importance of restructuring economies, a need already highlighted by the climate crisis
What trade-off has been highlighted by the pandemic and Russia’s war against Ukraine?
The trade-off between economic efficiency and resilience in the face of shocks
Why is there a push to shorten and diversify supply and value chains?
To reduce vulnerability, lower energy use, and cut greenhouse gas emissions from long-distance transport
Why is there a need to expand local pharmaceutical manufacturing?
To improve resilience, especially through generic drug production in middle-income countries
What other industries are targeted for localised manufacturing as part of circular economy development?
Medical equipment and everyday manufactured goods
Why is there a call to rebuild local and regional agricultural systems?
To reduce reliance on cheap labour, ensure decent livelihoods, and strengthen food system resilience
What ecological buffer is under threat and needs repair?
The buffer zones between natural habitats and human settlements
What lesson has been drawn about long-distance travel during the pandemic?
Much of it is unnecessary for maintaining international cooperation
How have Russia and Israel contributed to global insecurity?
Through systematic destruction of infrastructure in Ukraine and Gaza, following the precedent of US interventions in Iraq and Libya
What has been the impact of great power polarisation on global governance?
It has weakened the United Nations and hindered cooperation on global challenges like climate change
How has military spending shifted since the Ukraine war?
There has been a vast increase in military spending across Europe and the OECD
How have right-wing populist movements responded to climate change policies?
They have opposed climate measures and fuelled discontent around energy, transport, and consumption reforms
What are examples of backlash against green policies in the financial world?
ESG investment standards have faced resistance, such as BP withdrawing from sustainable energy efforts
How has the return of Donald Trump affected climate agreements?
The US withdrew again from the Paris Agreement and the Just Transition Partnership, rejecting science-based policymaking
What are some responses pushing back against populist climate denial?
Mark Carney has led Canada’s green finance resistance, and Germany has increased defence and green infrastructure investment
What is China’s contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions?
China is the largest emitter overall, though not per capita
What leadership has China shown in renewable energy?
By 2030, 60% of global renewable energy capacity will be in China, and it achieved wind/solar goals 6 years early
What milestone has China reached in electric vehicle adoption?
The number of EVs surpassed petrol and diesel vehicles 10 years ahead of schedule
What environmental challenge is associated with digital technology infrastructure like data centres?
They require vast amounts of energy and water for cooling
What does the IPCC say about the 1.5°C climate target?
The window to stay below 1.5°C is closing rapidly and is nearly lost even under the most optimistic scenarios
What is the projected global temperature rise under current emission trajectories?
We are on track for a 3.0°C increase above pre-industrial levels
What risks are posed to small islands and coastal areas by climate change?
One billion people may face coastal hazards by 2060 due to sea level rise
What compromise has been made around ‘loss and damage’?
Agreements have aimed to avoid assigning legal liability to corporations for climate-related damages
How does 1.5°C warming threaten food security?
Through increased droughts, floods, heatwaves, and sea level rise, especially in poorer countries
What are the food security risks at 2°C of warming?
It increases malnutrition risks in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Central and South America, and small islands
What concern does the IPCC raise about climate adaptation measures?
Many are small-scale, and maladaptation (e.g. planting forests on non-forested land) could worsen impacts
What are the main urban climate threats identified by the IPCC?
Cities face rising temperatures, pollution, water quality issues, flooding, infrastructure failure, and social impacts like poverty and migration
What did the study on disability and climate change in Indonesia find?
It found a lack of engagement with people living with disabilities in climate planning in two urban sites
How many people with disabilities live in developing countries?
Around 400 million people, or 80% of the global population with disabilities
What does the Indonesian study suggest about ableism?
Ableism functions as a socio-political mechanism of marginalisation, especially during disasters
Why is an intersectional approach necessary in climate policy?
Because overlapping issues like gender, poverty, and discrimination compound the vulnerability of people with disabilities
What statistic shows the disproportionate disaster risk for people with disabilities?
They are four times more likely to die in disaster situations
What are key contributions to environmental thought from 1962 to 2017?
Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962), Hardin’s Tragedy of the Commons (1968), Limits to Growth (1972), Daly’s Steady-State Economics (1977), Ostrom’s Governing the Commons (1990), Stern’s Economics of Climate Change (2007), and Raworth’s Doughnut Economics (2017)
What is Elinor Ostrom’s 1990 contribution to environmental governance?
She showed that common pool resources, including climate, can be sustainably managed by local users
What did the 1987 Brundtland Report introduce?
The concept of sustainable development in Our Common Future
What were the major outcomes of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit?
The Rio Declaration, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the UNFCCC
What global climate agreement was established in 1997 and implemented in 2005?
The Kyoto Protocol, which committed countries to emissions reduction
What was the purpose of the 2015 Paris Climate Accord?
To establish global adaptation and mitigation targets, including commitments from developing countries
What is the UN’s ongoing platform for global climate governance?
The annual COP conferences, including COP28 in 2023 held in the UAE
What political tensions have emerged during UN climate conferences?
Confrontations between rich and developing countries over emissions responsibilities and climate finance
What do Bowen and Hepburn define as green growth?
Green growth is GDP growth while preserving aggregate natural capital, including ecosystems, climate, and biodiversity
Why does GDP growth remain important in green growth discussions?
Because persistent poverty in the developing world makes continued economic growth necessary
What role does the state play in green growth according to Bowen and Hepburn?
The state provides strategic direction to incentivise innovation and manage distributional consequences
How does Dani Rodrik define green growth?
Green growth is a trajectory of economic development that sustainably uses non-renewable resources and internalises environmental costs, especially those related to climate change
What is the primary goal of green technologies?
To economise the use of exhaustible resources and reduce greenhouse gas emissions
What do Bowen and Hepburn argue green growth must go beyond?
It must go beyond reducing emissions and address the political economy, including fossil fuel interests and distributional effects
What does Stern identify as the greatest market failure?
Greenhouse gas emissions
What is Dercon’s main concern regarding green growth and poverty?
That green reforms can slow poverty reduction if they don’t address how the poor lack credit, insurance, and the ability to adapt or migrate
What does Dercon suggest is needed to make green growth pro-poor?
Policies must account for ‘distributional linkages’ and consider ‘different shades of green’ to reconcile environmental goals with poverty reduction
What do critics say about the feasibility of green growth based on empirical evidence?
There is little evidence that resource use or emissions can be decoupled from growth at the required speed
Why is indefinite material growth seen as ecologically impossible?
Because it violates ecological principles, even with renewable resources
What temperature rise is predicted under business-as-usual despite some decoupling?
Around 4.5°C above pre-industrial levels
What alternative to green growth is proposed for rich countries?
The need for ‘de-growth’ and shifting away from a narrow growth agenda in developing countries
What do Bowen and Hepburn argue the state must do in green industrial policy?
Go beyond market instruments and guide broad development paths through innovation incentives
What is Rodrik’s position on green industrial policy?
It should be central to green growth and its challenges are not insurmountable, despite traditional objections
Why is the private sector unlikely to lead in green R&D?
Because spillovers from innovation reduce the incentive to invest and carbon remains underpriced or subsidised
What is the value of a portfolio approach in green industrial policy?
Even if some projects fail (e.g. Solyndra), successful ventures (e.g. Tesla) can justify broad investment support
What would an ideal global carbon policy include?
A universal carbon tax
What is the current global reality in place of ideal carbon taxation?
A patchwork of subsidies, R&D support, and non-protectionist green technology policies
What institutional qualities are needed for effective green industrial policy?
Embeddedness in society, discipline in focusing on green technologies, and accountability to the public
What share of GHG emissions comes from agriculture, forestry, and land use?
18.4%, while the entire food system contributes about 25%
Why is methane particularly concerning in agriculture?
Because it contributes much more to warming than CO₂
What does the World Bank propose through CSA?
A ‘triple win’: increased productivity, improved climate resilience, and reduced emissions
What critique is made of the World Bank’s CSA approach?
It ignores vast inequalities in access to land, water, and food and marginalises political dimensions
How are many violent conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa misrepresented?
They are often portrayed as ethnic/religious when they are linked to climate change and farmer-herder disputes
What issues intersect in conflicts like those in Nigeria’s Middle Belt?
Environmental degradation, grazing land encroachment, government inaction, militia violence, and displacement
What actors must cooperate to address environmental transformation?
States, the private sector, communities, and global institutions
What does Novy’s trilemma suggest about global transformation?
We can only choose one among liberal globalism, nationalistic capitalism, and a foundational economy based on planetary co-existence
What does the foundational economy promote in Novy’s framework?
Social-economic democratisation, selective deglobalisation, and meeting basic human needs within ecological limits
How does Novy reinterpret Polanyi’s ‘great transformation’?
As a call for embedded, regionalised, mixed economies, not just a reaction to laissez-faire collapse
What does Rodrik’s trilemma assert about global political economy?
You can only choose two of three: hyperglobalisation, the nation-state, and democracy
Why does Rodrik say the territorial state remains crucial?
Because it is where law, policing, and public budgets can be democratically managed and markets constrained
What global leadership role have developing countries taken on plastics?
Countries like Rwanda and Bangladesh led in banning plastic bags, with Rwanda enforcing it successfully through mass education
What was the global outcome of the 2022 UN Environmental Assembly on plastics?
A resolution to address the full plastic supply chain was passed, set for implementation by 2024
What is the central idea of the circular economy in developing countries?
Recycling and waste reduction, challenging the linear model of consumption and production
How has the circular economy been adopted globally?
It was part of China’s five-year plans and forms part of the EU’s environmental strategies
Why is capitalism said to be failing in combating climate change?
Because it relies on exploiting “cheap natures” and avoids investing in infrastructure when profits are low
What does Jason Moore argue about capitalism’s environmental impact?
Capitalism’s search for “cheap natures” drives ecological degradation and unpaid labour use
What does Christophers say about private investment and renewable energy?
Falling prices of renewables deter private investment in infrastructure renewal
What is green growth as defined by Bowen and Hepburn (2014)?
Green growth is economic growth that preserves or enhances aggregate natural capital to allow long-term improvements in human welfare
How does the OECD define green growth?
Green growth is fostering economic development while ensuring natural assets continue to provide essential environmental services for well-being
What is aggregate natural capital?
Aggregate natural capital includes forests, water, soil, biodiversity, clean air, stable climate systems, and functioning ecosystems
What does green growth imply about economic output and the environment?
It implies that economic output and environmental health are not mutually exclusive and can be pursued simultaneously
Why did green growth become central to institutions like the OECD and World Bank?
Due to the need for new post-2008 recession growth strategies, recognition of growth’s role in poverty reduction, and rising concern over environmental degradation
What are the three global pressures that increased green growth’s popularity?
The post-2008 growth slowdown, global poverty challenges, and the scale of climate change as an environmental externality
What do pessimists argue about green growth?
That economic growth inherently depends on resource extraction and environmental degradation
What do optimists believe about green growth?
That GDP growth can be decoupled from environmental harm through innovation, efficiency, and a shift to knowledge-intensive industries
What is a common criticism skeptics raise about green growth?
That green growth may amount to greenwashing and is impractical despite sounding good in theory
What evidence do optimists point to in support of green growth?
Declining emissions per unit of GDP in some countries and the feasibility of a circular economy that minimises waste
What is standard green growth?
Standard green growth entails short-term costs for long-term benefits, such as climate policies
What is strong green growth?
Strong green growth claims both short- and long-term gains, driven by public investment, innovation, and correcting market failures
What is “green Keynesianism” in strong green growth?
It refers to using public investment in clean infrastructure and technology to stimulate demand during economic downturns
How does strong green growth propose to correct market failures?
By realising health gains, reducing pollution, improving transport, and enhancing productivity
How does Schumpeterian innovation support strong green growth?
It encourages entrepreneurial investment and technological development in response to green transition expectations
What is the state’s role in green growth according to Bowen and Hepburn?
The state must go beyond carbon taxes to provide strategic direction, fund innovation, and manage the transition’s social effects
Why are vertical interventions important in green industrial policy?
They target specific technologies to overcome lock-in and path dependence, unlike broad incentives
What does green industrial policy require from the state?
Support for specific green sectors, not just horizontal price adjustments
What are horizontal policies in green growth?
Broad policies like carbon pricing and general R&D subsidies that apply across all sectors
What are vertical policies in green growth?
Targeted interventions such as subsidies for solar power or bans on coal, aligned with strategic planning
Why is a mix of horizontal and vertical policies often necessary?
To balance market efficiency with directed support for innovation and coordinated structural change
What political economy challenges affect green growth transitions?
Resistance from fossil fuel interests, high transition costs, and the need for coordinated international action
What are the distributional challenges of green growth in developing countries?
Ensuring that green policies don’t slow poverty alleviation or disproportionately burden the poor.
How can green policies in developed countries be regressive?
Climate policies can disproportionately affect lower-income groups unless offset by redistribution
What are the main approaches used to promote green growth?
Carbon pricing, green subsidies, innovation system support, circular economy promotion, and green infrastructure investment
Why is public investment in green infrastructure important during downturns?
It can stimulate the economy while laying foundations for low-carbon development
What dual promise does green growth offer?
Economic progress alongside environmental preservation
Why is green growth considered pragmatic and necessary?
Because undermining natural capital will eventually threaten both human welfare and economic systems
Why is there no one-size-fits-all green growth policy?
Countries differ in development level, resource endowments, institutions, and political context
How have different countries approached green growth?
The EU uses emissions trading and renewables; China invests in green infrastructure but relies on fossil fuels; Costa Rica focuses on biodiversity
Why are experimentation and evaluation important for green growth policies?
To identify scalable solutions tailored to specific national conditions
Why is transitioning to green growth a systemic transformation?
It involves deep structural changes such as retiring fossil infrastructure and shifting employment patterns
What is the state’s role in supporting a green growth transition?
To invest in innovation, mitigate job losses, retrain workers, and direct long-term economic planning
Can market-based instruments play a role in green transitions?
Yes, tools like carbon pricing and decentralised innovation can drive substantial changes without full state control
Why are developing countries especially vulnerable to environmental degradation?
Because they face intensifying problems like deforestation, water depletion, soil erosion, and pollution, worsened by climate change
Why are poor people disproportionately affected by environmental degradation?
They rely on natural capital for their livelihoods and have limited capacity to adapt, invest in resilience, or access insurance
How do widespread environmental shocks affect the poor’s coping mechanisms?
Informal risk-sharing systems often fail during widespread disasters like climate shocks
What role does sustained economic growth play in poverty reduction?
It is essential for lifting people out of poverty and increasing their resilience to climate change
What are poverty traps and why are they significant?
Poverty traps occur when poor people lack the capital to invest, diversify, or migrate, leaving them exposed to repeated shocks
What is the central aim of green growth?
To balance economic expansion with the internalisation of environmental costs
How might green growth enhance long-term welfare?
By conserving resources and protecting environmental capital essential for future development
What short-term risks can green growth pose for the poor?
It can increase prices for energy or inputs, cause job losses, and reduce access to affordable alternatives
Why don’t efficiency gains from green growth automatically benefit the poor?
Because without redistribution mechanisms, gains may be captured by wealthier groups
Why is poverty more than just an asset-based issue?
It is also shaped by sectoral employment, spatial mobility, and vulnerability to shocks and credit failures
Why is structural transformation critical to poverty reduction?
Because it involves shifting from low-productivity to high-productivity, labour-intensive sectors
What are the benefits of environmental pricing and regulation for green growth?
They correct market failures and improve environmental quality, such as cleaner water and air
What challenges do environmental regulations pose for the poor?
They pay a higher share of income for essentials and may lose out from increased production costs and job displacement
How might environmental regulation increase inequality across regions?
Industries may relocate near poorer settlements to avoid stricter enforcement in wealthier areas
What are the potential benefits of low-carbon and green investments for development?
They can create jobs in renewable energy and transport sectors and stimulate long-term development
What are the drawbacks of low-carbon investments for the poor?
High capital costs may displace pro-poor spending, and green jobs may be too capital- or skill-intensive
How might green investments reinforce spatial inequality?
Localised urban investments can marginalise remote or rural communities
What is the goal of adaptation and resilience investments?
To build community resilience to climate shocks such as floods or droughts
What risks do adaptation strategies pose for the poor?
They may trap people in marginal livelihoods and overlook better long-term solutions like migration or economic transition
Why do urban poor often remain vulnerable despite resilience investments?
Because investments usually prioritise high-value assets, neglecting poorer urban communities
What is a major trade-off in green growth for developing countries?
Green growth can slow poverty reduction if not carefully designed
What four criteria should be used to assess green growth’s impact on poverty?
Static efficiency, labour intensity, structural transformation, and spatial connectivity
Why is redistribution important in green growth strategies?
Because gains from efficiency must be shared with the poor through social protection and safety nets
What should be avoided in green investment choices?
Projects that crowd out more effective poverty-reducing interventions
Why should policies avoid reinforcing spatial traps?
Because investing only in marginal areas can hinder mobility and urban integration needed for development
Why is contextual tailoring critical in green growth policy?
Because low-income countries have unmet basic needs and policies must reflect their specific development realities
