Week 2.2 - Civil Society as a Contested Space in Development

Question 1

What is civil society?

Answer 1

Civil society is an associational space between the state, the market, and the family
It requires the state to grant or deny rights, and “rule of law” requires the state
Without the state, you can have “social/society groups” but not “civil” society. Civil society can also monitor the state

Question 2

What is the relationship between civil society and power asymmetries?

Answer 2

Civil society is ridden with the power asymmetries present in society and the economy as a whole
It is neither inherently “good” nor “bad,” as it reflects the inequalities of the broader society and economy

Question 3

What is the rights-claiming space in civil society?

Answer 3

The rights-claiming space is where people come together as “citizens” to organize around group interests and goals, acting collectively in the public sphere (Diamond, 1995)

Question 4

How did military regimes in Latin America and communist regimes impact civil society?

Answer 4

In these regimes, people organized to claim political and civil rights, challenging state power (Chandhoke, 2007)

Question 5

What did Lavalle et al. (2005) say about civil society organisations?

Answer 5

Lavalle et al. (2005) argue that people are not organised for “individual” rights but for “collective organisations”
Civil society organisations cannot be alternatives to the state to promote “participation,” but their connection to political society promotes participation

Question 6

According to Diamond (1994), can civil society exist in a “lawless state”?

Answer 6

Yes, civil society may exist in a lawless state if participants have shared rules such as non-violence and pluralism

Question 7

What are some examples of civil society organisations?

Answer 7

Examples include business associations, trade unions, farmer organisations, women’s organisations, professional organisations (e.g., journalists, doctors), community organizations, charities, development NGOs (membership and advocacy), and religious organisations

Question 8

What is the democratic function of civil society in a democracy?

Answer 8

Civil society plays a democratic function by being pluralist and market-oriented, contributing to democratic practices

Question 9

What is the role of professional associations in civil society?

Answer 9

Professional associations set standards and norms, such as journalism in a capitalist system

Question 10

How do private sector companies interact with civil society?

Answer 10

Private sector companies attempt to capture or form civil society organisations

Question 11

What is the role of state repression in relation to civil society organisations?

Answer 11

Civil society organisations, especially local development NGOs, can be targets of state repression
For example, in the Philippines, local NGOs are often labeled as “terrorists,” and in Israel, the IDF has accused all organized relief NGOs of being terrorists

Question 12

What is Gramsci’s notion of hegemony in relation to civil society?

Answer 12

Gramsci’s notion of hegemony suggests that civil society is the site of battles over political legitimacy, where the state constructs its hegemony in alliance with dominant classes
If civil society is repressed, people may rebel

Question 13

How does Diamond (1994) recast Gramsci’s concept of civil society?

Answer 13

Diamond recasts civil society as the “ideological marketplace,” including media, universities, think tanks, publishers, theatres, film companies, and artistic networks

Question 14

How do civil society organisations serve political functions?

Answer 14

Civil society organisations serve as terrains of confrontation between political currents, organising and lobbying for legal changes (e.g., at the state level) and can give birth to political organisations (e.g., trade unions forming the Labour Party, environmental movements forming Green Parties)

Question 15

Can civil society organizations replace political parties and state agencies?

Answer 15

According to Lavalle et al. (2005), civil society organizations cannot replace political parties and state agencies in addressing problems of the poor; they must work with them and serve as “representatives” of the poor

Question 16

How do political organizations interact with civil society?

Answer 16

Political organisations attempt to capture civil society organisations, create new ones, or co-opt existing ones
For example, German political parties establish foundations, and communist parties form “front groups”

Question 17

How did the Suharto dictatorship in Indonesia use civil society organisations?

Answer 17

Under the Suharto dictatorship, most societal organisations distinct from the ruling GOLKAR party were banned
However, environmental organisations were allowed, as they were seen as unthreatening to the regime and participated in the democratic transition

Question 18

How did civil society contribute to the overthrow of regimes in Eastern Europe?

Answer 18

In Soviet times, civil society played a role in re-establishing people in public life, with movements like the environmental movement in the GDR contributing to the overthrow of the regime

Question 19

How have workers’ rights in capitalist systems evolved?

Answer 19

Workers’ rights have evolved from “yellow unions” to more effective labor unions
In capitalist democracies, there have been both advances and setbacks in workers’ rights to organise and engage in collective bargaining

Question 20

How do trade unions function in China?

Answer 20

In China, the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU) is under the authority of the CCP
The Shenzhen Federation of Trade Unions (SFTU) is affiliated with the ACFTU and organizes workers while steering them away from strikes, acquiring “associational power” more than typical “yellow unions” in capitalist systems

Question 21

What is emergent autonomy in relation to trade unions?

Answer 21

Emergent autonomy refers to trade unions transforming from instruments of state authority into organisations that defend workers’ interests and rights
This is seen as an investment in the future, such as with the SFTU at the Yantian International Container Terminal

Question 22

What is the role of farmers’ organisations in civil society?

Answer 22

Farmers’ organisations are involved in politics, advocating for food security, organic farming, and confronting agribusiness companies
They play a role in the green transition and can be distinguished from cooperatives, which are market-oriented organisations

Question 23

How do community organizations function within civil society?

Answer 23

Community organisations can be organic, formed by communities themselves, or created by the state, NGOs, or donor agencies, such as those involved in World Bank programs

Question 24

What is the nature of NGOs in civil society?

Answer 24

NGOs are officially established legal entities, run by employed staff, well-funded domestically or internationally, large and well-staffed, and often viewed as liberal democratic and pro-democratic

Question 25

What is the difference between membership NGOs and advocacy NGOs?

Answer 25

Membership NGOs are more accountable to their members, even if they receive external funding, while advocacy NGOs are cause-oriented and tend to be more ephemeral

Question 26

What is the role of professionalised NGOs in civil society?

Answer 26

Professionalised NGOs are urban-based, staffed by educated people, and have a self-reproducing incentive structure They tend to propagate a culture of managerialism and are captured by modernisation and neoliberal worldviews

Question 27

How do NGOs influence politics?

Answer 27

NGOs may assume "inclusiveness," but their growth often aligns with the geo-strategic objectives of donor countries They are seen as service delivery agents, not an expansion of civil society, particularly in a neoliberal anti-state context

Question 28

How do NGOs strengthen or bypass the state?

Answer 28

NGOs mobilise to bypass the state due to bureaucratic inefficiency and political indifference (Chandhoke) Some argue that NGOs extend the state's authority (e.g., social funds), while others claim NGOs are doing what the state should do (e.g., in Vietnam)

Question 29

How do international civil society organisations function?

Answer 29

International civil society organisations operate when civil society is guaranteed by states within the realm of law, with cooperation between civil society organisations anchored in states International law remains embryonic, and a global state is yet to be seen

Question 30

What is the role of international NGOs (INGOs)?

Answer 30

INGOs serve as conduits for official development assistance but may weaken local communities by hiring the best local talent, diverting funding, antagonising states, and compromising the interests of local civil society organisations

Question 31

What is the accountability issue with INGOs?

Answer 31

INGOs often lack accountability to the populations and communities they work with in developing countries They prioritise donor country interests and face pressures to collaborate with the private sector, sometimes compromising their effectiveness

Question 32

How do INGOs prioritize reproduction and risk management?

Answer 32

INGOs prioritise the reproduction of their organisations and engage in risk management, which often involves reducing accountability and focusing on their own survival rather than addressing community needs

Question 33

What is the relationship between NGOs and state capacity building?

Answer 33

NGOs contribute to service delivery to reach the rural and urban poor, but there are concerns about their relationship with state bureaucracy, including the attitude of state organisations towards foreign-funded NGOs and finance delivered outside state systems

Question 34

How was the concept of civil society resurrected during authoritarian states?

Answer 34

The concept of civil society was resurrected during authoritarian states to signify a set of social and political practices that sought to engage with state power In civil society, individuals and groups challenged unresponsive and authoritarian states through peaceful, non-violent methods like strikes, protest marches, demonstrations, dissemination of information, and forming associational life through reading clubs and discussion forums

Question 35

What are the theoretical foundations of civil society?

Answer 35

Historically, civil society was theorised as a space between the state and the individual, emphasising the need to monitor, engage with, and hold state power accountable

Question 36

How did civil society emerge in Eastern Europe?

Answer 36

In Eastern Europe, civil society emerged as a site where people, organised into groups, could pursue democratic projects in freedom from bureaucratic state power

Question 37

What is the basic precondition of democracy according to civil society theory?

Answer 37

The basic precondition of democracy is that state power must be monitored, engaged with, and made accountable through intentional and engaged citizen action

Question 38

How has the meaning of civil society shifted over time?

Answer 38

Civil society was initially a revolutionary and dynamic concept but has become a consensual, "flattened" term, losing its original ambiguities and tensions This reductionist approach has sidelined broader political and social dimensions, undermining its potential for deep democratic engagement

Question 39

What is the role of donor influence in the evolution of civil society?

Answer 39

Multilateral organizations and donor agencies promoted civil society as a solution for democracy and development, reducing it to NGOs and voluntary agencies, thus conceptualising civil society as only consisting of voluntary agencies, or what is termed the ‘third sector’

Question 40

How have theorists like Tocqueville, Hegel, Marx, and Gramsci viewed the relationship between civil society and the state?

Answer 40

Tocqueville (1835, 1840): Civil society limits the state Hegel (1821): Civil society is a necessary stage in the formation of the state Marx: Civil society is the source of power for the state Gramsci (1929-1935): Civil society is the space where the state constructs its hegemony in alliance with dominant classes These perspectives suggest that civil society and the state are interdependent, with each constituting the other. Today, they have often been uncoupled

Question 41

Why did civil society become popular in developing countries?

Answer 41

Civil society became popular in developing countries due to widespread disillusionment with state-led development It legitimised citisens' demands on the state, promoted state accountability, and provided an autonomous space for democratic projects

Question 42

What are the challenges and criticisms of civil society in developing countries?

Answer 42

Inequality and exclusion: Civil society often mirrors existing power imbalances, with marginalized groups struggling for representation Co-optation by donors: NGOs risk being tools for bypassing state sovereignty in the Global South Romanticized expectations: Civil society is neither inherently democratic nor transformative; its effectiveness depends on its inhabitants and their struggles Disenchantment in Eastern Europe: After the dismantling of state institutions and market openings, there was austerity, unemployment, ethnic discrimination, and violence, leading to disillusionment with civil society

Question 43

What led to the flattening out of civil society, according to Neera Chandhoke?

Answer 43

Association with democracy: Civil society's connection to the fall of authoritarian regimes led donors to view it as a “sure recipe” for democracy Discontent with traditional representation: Bureaucratic, unresponsive political parties and trade unions led activists to view civil society as an alternative to formal politics State pluralization: After the post-Washington Consensus, the state was expected to share functions with civil society organizations, leading to the rise of NGOs Reduction to the ‘Third Sector’: Civil society is now mainly seen as voluntary agencies

Question 44

How did civil society impact development and democracy in different regions?

Answer 44

In India, civil society was noisy, vibrant, and creative, with active movements challenging state agendas In Africa, the 1990s protest movements were conceptualized as civil society versus the state, termed the "second liberation of the continent" Across the Global South, civil society was seen as an alternative to failing state-led projects

Question 45

What were the consequences of civil society in Eastern Europe after the fall of the Soviet Union?

Answer 45

The dismantling of state institutions and market openings led to austerity, massive unemployment, ethnic discrimination, and ethnic explosions People became disenchanted with civil society after the initial enthusiasm

Question 46

What did Lavalle et al. (2005) argue about the participation of civil organizations versus individuals?

Answer 46

Lavalle et al. (2005) argued that the dominant focus on individual citizen participation is misplaced In participatory institutions, civil organizations representing different sectors of the poor are the primary participants Most active representatives of the poor in São Paulo were well-connected to conventional political actors, necessitating a polity-centered approach

Question 47

How do political connections affect the effectiveness of civil organisations?

Answer 47

Civil organisations with ties to political parties and state agencies are more effective in representing the poor They are not co-opted and are more likely to organise public demonstrations and demand action from the government through multiple channels These organisations participate at higher rates due to their ability to influence participatory institutions and access policy-related resources

Question 48

How does the design of participatory institutions influence participation?

Answer 48

The structure and rules of participatory institutions significantly influence which organisations participate Features such as territorial cycles (favouring local associations) and thematic cycles (favouring issue-based organisations) can mitigate wealth-based disparities among organisations

Question 49

What does the integration of direct and representative democracy in participatory institutions accomplish?

Answer 49

The integration of civil organisations into broader political networks in participatory institutions blurs the lines between direct and representative democracy, enhancing their effectiveness

Question 50

What are the broad empirical lessons from Lavalle et al.'s (2005) study on civil society in São Paulo?

Answer 50

Civil organisations representing the poor participate substantially in participatory policy processes alongside individual citisens Ties to political parties and state agencies enhance civil organisations’ ability to represent the poor The capacities of civil organisations to participate vary, and only a minority are membership-based Institutional design influences participation, neutralising wealthier organisations' advantages

Question 51

What is the polity-centered approach to participation in civil society?

Answer 51

The polity-centered approach sees participatory institutions as political products negotiated iteratively between state and societal actors It emphasises that institutional design features favor some actors over others and that civil organisations with political ties benefit from better access to resources and influence

Question 52

How are different types of NGOs categorised in the civil society context?

Answer 52

Advocacy NGOs: Focus on transforming social problems into public issues to influence policy or private behaviour Local Associations: Represent territorially-defined communities or movements Coordinators: Coordinate debate and action among member organisations, often representing issue-based imagined communities Service Nonprofits: Provide services to individuals, often with a religious or charitable focus

Question 53

What are the key distinctions between the civil society and polity approaches to participation?

Answer 53

Civil society approach views civil society as a distinct, virtuous sphere independent of politics, but lacks differentiation within the diverse actors of civil society Polity approach focuses on the interconnectedness of civil and political actors, viewing participatory institutions as products of political negotiation and providing a stronger analytical basis for understanding participation dynamics

Question 54

What did Michael Bratton (1989) suggest about NGOs and civil society?

Answer 54

Bratton suggested that NGOs significantly bolster civil society through their participatory and democratic approach

Question 55

How does the dominant liberal view of NGOs and civil society relate to democracy?

Answer 55

The liberal view posits that a vibrant and autonomous civil society, along with an effective state, is necessary for balancing demands from different interest groups, thus supporting democracy NGOs are seen as integral to strengthening civil society and democracy

Question 56

How does the liberal democratic theory relate to civil society and the state?

Answer 56

Liberal democratic theory holds that the state should provide accountable government, and civil society should enjoy civil and political rights and associational autonomy A strong state and a strong civil society are seen as complementary and essential to each other

Question 57

What is the role of civil society in democratic transitions and consolidation?

Answer 57

Civil society mobilises pressure for political change during democratic transitions and checks state abuses, prevents authoritarian resurgence, encourages citizen participation, and enhances state legitimacy during democratic consolidation

Question 58

What are the flaws in the liberal democratic perspective of NGOs in strengthening civil society?

Answer 58

The liberal democratic perspective oversimplifies democratic transitions and consolidation, ignoring the complexities, contradictions, and local contexts in which NGOs operate

Question 59

How has the growth of NGOs been misinterpreted in relation to civil society?

Answer 59

The growth of NGOs has often been equated with the strengthening of civil society, overlooking the diversity, internal contradictions, and differing capacities of NGOs This conflation overlooks how NGOs can replicate societal inequalities and remain dependent on external donors

Question 60

What is the impact of NGOs on developing societies?

Answer 60

NGOs empower marginalised groups, expand citizen participation, and advocate for policy reforms, as seen in countries like Chile, Brazil, Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand However, they can also weaken state legitimacy, especially when they fill gaps in service provision or function as a "parallel state"

Question 61

What are the negative effects of NGO professionalisation and donor dependence?

Answer 61

Professionalisation and donor dependence distance NGOs from grassroots constituencies, leading them to replicate societal divisions rather than challenge them In some countries, NGO leadership operates with personalised rule, and NGO activities tend to favour urban elites over rural populations

Question 62

What is the role of donor funding in NGO activities?

Answer 62

Donor funding drives the proliferation of NGOs but emphasises service delivery over political activism NGOs become more accountable to donors than to grassroots communities, with urban-based elites dominating the NGO sector

Question 63

How do NGOs interact with the state in Latin America and other regions?

Answer 63

NGOs in Latin America often function as partners in state-sponsored programs, legitimising neoliberal policies In countries like Brazil, NGOs have played consultative roles, legitimising government policy rather than challenging it

Question 64

What is the dual impact of NGOs on the state?

Answer 64

NGOs strengthen state legitimacy by delivering services but weaken state capacity by diverting resources and accountability away from governments

Question 65

How do NGOs fit into Tocquevillian and Gramscian perspectives on civil society?

Answer 65

Tocquevillian perspective: Civil society is inherently "good," and NGOs are microcosms of the democratic process Gramscian perspective: Civil society is a contested space reflecting broader societal struggles, where power dynamics shape the role and impact of NGOs

Question 66

How has the neoliberal era affected NGOs?

Answer 66

NGOs in the neoliberal era have become increasingly embedded in the political and economic agenda, often serving as tools for donor-driven development In Latin America, NGOs have been used to implement the neoliberal model, reducing their autonomy and transformation potential

Question 67

How does civil society contribute to democratization?

Answer 67

Civil society mobilizes against authoritarian rule by organizing protests, advocacy, and grassroots movements

Question 68

What are some historical examples of civil society movements leading to democratic transitions?

Answer 68

South Korea, Chile, Poland, South Africa, Nigeria "People Power" revolution in the Philippines (1986) led to the fall of Ferdinand Marcos

Question 69

What is a critique of civil society’s role in democratization?

Answer 69

Overemphasizing civil society ignores the role of political elites and negotiated transitions in democratization

Question 70

What is an alternative perspective on civil society's role in democratization?

Answer 70

Civil society must work alongside institutional reforms and state capacity building rather than solely opposing authoritarianism

Question 71

How does civil society hold governments accountable?

Answer 71

Through human rights groups, voter education initiatives, and anti-corruption watchdogs Independent media and think tanks expose abuses and influence policy

Question 72

What is a critique of civil society as a government watchdog?

Answer 72

Civil society can be co-opted by the state, especially in weak democracies, limiting its independence

Question 73

What is an alternative perspective on civil society’s accountability role?

Answer 73

Civil society needs legal protections and autonomy from the state to function effectively

Question 74

How does associational life enhance democratic participation?

Answer 74

Tocqueville emphasized voluntary associations as key to political engagement Women’s groups in Latin America and trade unions in Eastern Europe contributed to democratic consolidation

Question 75

What is a critique of the role of associational life in democracy?

Answer 75

Participation in civil society does not always translate into broader democratic engagement (e.g., low voter turnout in the U.S.)

Question 76

What is an alternative perspective on democratic participation?

Answer 76

Strong political parties may be more effective than fragmented civil society in mobilizing participatio

Question 77

How does civil society mitigate social divisions?

Answer 77

Cross-cutting organizations reduce ethnic, religious, and ideological tensions. Labour unions and issue-based movements have reduced polarization in post-authoritarian societies

Question 78

What is a critique of civil society's role in reducing polarization?

Answer 78

Some civil society groups can deepen polarization (e.g., fundamentalist or nationalist movements)

Question 79

What is an alternative approach to mitigating social divisions?

Answer 79

State-led integration policies may be needed to prevent civil society from becoming a battleground for social conflicts

Question 80

How does civil society contribute to political leadership?

Answer 80

Organizations like The Evelio B. Javier Foundation train local politicians Civil society leaders transition into formal politics in post-authoritarian democracies

Question 81

What is a critique of civil society as a leadership pipeline?

Answer 81

Civil society actors may lack experience or legitimacy to govern effectively

Question 82

What is an alternative perspective on leadership recruitment?

Answer 82

Political parties should be the primary vehicles for leadership development

Question 83

Why is political institutionalization key to democratic consolidation?

Answer 83

Strong political parties, independent judiciaries, and effective legislatures ensure stability

Question 84

What is a critique of political institutionalization?

Answer 84

Over-reliance on institutions may neglect grassroots democracy and civic engagement

Question 85

What is an alternative perspective on democratic consolidation?

Answer 85

Civil society and institutional reforms should complement each other, not be alternatives

Question 86

What is structural power in labor movements?

Answer 86

Workers’ leverage based on their location in the economic system, such as labor shortages or working in essential industries

Question 87

What is associational power in labor movements?

Answer 87

Power derived from forming collective organizations like trade unions

Question 88

What is collective bargaining?

Answer 88

A formal negotiation process between workers and management to secure better wages, working conditions, and benefits

Question 89

What is the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU)?

Answer 89

The only legal trade union in China, controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

Question 90

Why are independent trade unions ineffective in China?

Answer 90

They are prohibited, and workplace unions are dependent on management, making them ineffective

Question 91

What role did the Yantian International Container Terminal (YICT) play in labor struggles?

Answer 91

It is one of the world’s busiest ports, where workers staged successful strikes in 2007 and 2013

Question 92

How did YICT workers use structural power?

Answer 92

Critical role in supply chains allowed them to disrupt global trade Stable employment & labor shortages increased their bargaining power

Question 93

What were the outcomes of YICT strikes?

Answer 93

2007: Wage increases, paid lunch breaks, and a union were established 2013: Workers won a 30% wage increase and housing benefits

Question 94

What challenges did YICT unionism face?

Answer 94

State-controlled unions limited worker autonomy Management resistance created ongoing tensions

Question 95

What is Polanyi’s view on counter-movements?

Answer 95

They occur spontaneously and mechanically in response to market expansion

Question 96

What is a critique of Polanyi’s theory?

Answer 96

It ignores organization, social structures, and class dynamics in counter-movements

Question 97

What was the National Alliance of People’s Movements (NAPM)?

Answer 97

A coalition against globalization, liberalization, and privatization in India

Question 98

What ideological frameworks did NAPM draw upon?

Answer 98

Gandhianism, Ambedkarism, environmentalism, feminism, and socialism

Question 99

What were the core tenets of NAPM?

Answer 99

Resistance to neoliberalism and state-led modernization Resistance to casteism and communalism Commitment to non-violence Decentralized democracy

Question 100

Why did NAPM fail to influence policy?

Answer 100

Class and caste contradictions between farmers and Dalits Fragmentation and lack of national coordination

Question 101

What divided farmers and Dalits in NAPM?

Answer 101

Farmers: Led by middle and upper-caste landowners. Dalits: Inspired by Ambedkar, favored modernization to break caste barriers

Question 102

Why did Dalits’ views on globalization shift?

Answer 102

As liberalization harmed Dalits, movements like the National Commission for Dalit Human Rights (NCDHR) joined NAPM

Question 103

Why was it difficult for NAPM to unify movements?

Answer 103

Diverse neoliberal experiences made coordination difficult Single-issue politics prevented a unified national agenda