Week 2.2 - Civil Society as a Contested Space in Development Flashcards
What is civil society?
Civil society is an associational space between the state, the market, and the family
It requires the state to grant or deny rights, and “rule of law” requires the state
Without the state, you can have “social/society groups” but not “civil” society. Civil society can also monitor the state
What is the relationship between civil society and power asymmetries?
Civil society is ridden with the power asymmetries present in society and the economy as a whole
It is neither inherently “good” nor “bad,” as it reflects the inequalities of the broader society and economy
What is the rights-claiming space in civil society?
The rights-claiming space is where people come together as “citizens” to organize around group interests and goals, acting collectively in the public sphere (Diamond, 1995)
How did military regimes in Latin America and communist regimes impact civil society?
In these regimes, people organized to claim political and civil rights, challenging state power (Chandhoke, 2007)
What did Lavalle et al. (2005) say about civil society organisations?
Lavalle et al. (2005) argue that people are not organised for “individual” rights but for “collective organisations”
Civil society organisations cannot be alternatives to the state to promote “participation,” but their connection to political society promotes participation
According to Diamond (1994), can civil society exist in a “lawless state”?
Yes, civil society may exist in a lawless state if participants have shared rules such as non-violence and pluralism
What are some examples of civil society organisations?
Examples include business associations, trade unions, farmer organisations, women’s organisations, professional organisations (e.g., journalists, doctors), community organizations, charities, development NGOs (membership and advocacy), and religious organisations
What is the democratic function of civil society in a democracy?
Civil society plays a democratic function by being pluralist and market-oriented, contributing to democratic practices
What is the role of professional associations in civil society?
Professional associations set standards and norms, such as journalism in a capitalist system
How do private sector companies interact with civil society?
Private sector companies attempt to capture or form civil society organisations
What is the role of state repression in relation to civil society organisations?
Civil society organisations, especially local development NGOs, can be targets of state repression
For example, in the Philippines, local NGOs are often labeled as “terrorists,” and in Israel, the IDF has accused all organized relief NGOs of being terrorists
What is Gramsci’s notion of hegemony in relation to civil society?
Gramsci’s notion of hegemony suggests that civil society is the site of battles over political legitimacy, where the state constructs its hegemony in alliance with dominant classes
If civil society is repressed, people may rebel
How does Diamond (1994) recast Gramsci’s concept of civil society?
Diamond recasts civil society as the “ideological marketplace,” including media, universities, think tanks, publishers, theatres, film companies, and artistic networks
How do civil society organisations serve political functions?
Civil society organisations serve as terrains of confrontation between political currents, organising and lobbying for legal changes (e.g., at the state level) and can give birth to political organisations (e.g., trade unions forming the Labour Party, environmental movements forming Green Parties)
Can civil society organizations replace political parties and state agencies?
According to Lavalle et al. (2005), civil society organizations cannot replace political parties and state agencies in addressing problems of the poor; they must work with them and serve as “representatives” of the poor
How do political organizations interact with civil society?
Political organisations attempt to capture civil society organisations, create new ones, or co-opt existing ones
For example, German political parties establish foundations, and communist parties form “front groups”
How did the Suharto dictatorship in Indonesia use civil society organisations?
Under the Suharto dictatorship, most societal organisations distinct from the ruling GOLKAR party were banned
However, environmental organisations were allowed, as they were seen as unthreatening to the regime and participated in the democratic transition
How did civil society contribute to the overthrow of regimes in Eastern Europe?
In Soviet times, civil society played a role in re-establishing people in public life, with movements like the environmental movement in the GDR contributing to the overthrow of the regime
How have workers’ rights in capitalist systems evolved?
Workers’ rights have evolved from “yellow unions” to more effective labor unions
In capitalist democracies, there have been both advances and setbacks in workers’ rights to organise and engage in collective bargaining
How do trade unions function in China?
In China, the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU) is under the authority of the CCP
The Shenzhen Federation of Trade Unions (SFTU) is affiliated with the ACFTU and organizes workers while steering them away from strikes, acquiring “associational power” more than typical “yellow unions” in capitalist systems
What is emergent autonomy in relation to trade unions?
Emergent autonomy refers to trade unions transforming from instruments of state authority into organisations that defend workers’ interests and rights
This is seen as an investment in the future, such as with the SFTU at the Yantian International Container Terminal
What is the role of farmers’ organisations in civil society?
Farmers’ organisations are involved in politics, advocating for food security, organic farming, and confronting agribusiness companies
They play a role in the green transition and can be distinguished from cooperatives, which are market-oriented organisations
How do community organizations function within civil society?
Community organisations can be organic, formed by communities themselves, or created by the state, NGOs, or donor agencies, such as those involved in World Bank programs
What is the nature of NGOs in civil society?
NGOs are officially established legal entities, run by employed staff, well-funded domestically or internationally, large and well-staffed, and often viewed as liberal democratic and pro-democratic
What is the difference between membership NGOs and advocacy NGOs?
Membership NGOs are more accountable to their members, even if they receive external funding, while advocacy NGOs are cause-oriented and tend to be more ephemeral
What is the role of professionalised NGOs in civil society?
Professionalised NGOs are urban-based, staffed by educated people, and have a self-reproducing incentive structure
They tend to propagate a culture of managerialism and are captured by modernisation and neoliberal worldviews
How do NGOs influence politics?
NGOs may assume “inclusiveness,” but their growth often aligns with the geo-strategic objectives of donor countries
They are seen as service delivery agents, not an expansion of civil society, particularly in a neoliberal anti-state context
How do NGOs strengthen or bypass the state?
NGOs mobilise to bypass the state due to bureaucratic inefficiency and political indifference (Chandhoke)
Some argue that NGOs extend the state’s authority (e.g., social funds), while others claim NGOs are doing what the state should do (e.g., in Vietnam)
How do international civil society organisations function?
International civil society organisations operate when civil society is guaranteed by states within the realm of law, with cooperation between civil society organisations anchored in states
International law remains embryonic, and a global state is yet to be seen
What is the role of international NGOs (INGOs)?
INGOs serve as conduits for official development assistance but may weaken local communities by hiring the best local talent, diverting funding, antagonising states, and compromising the interests of local civil society organisations
What is the accountability issue with INGOs?
INGOs often lack accountability to the populations and communities they work with in developing countries
They prioritise donor country interests and face pressures to collaborate with the private sector, sometimes compromising their effectiveness
How do INGOs prioritize reproduction and risk management?
INGOs prioritise the reproduction of their organisations and engage in risk management, which often involves reducing accountability and focusing on their own survival rather than addressing community needs
What is the relationship between NGOs and state capacity building?
NGOs contribute to service delivery to reach the rural and urban poor, but there are concerns about their relationship with state bureaucracy, including the attitude of state organisations towards foreign-funded NGOs and finance delivered outside state systems
How was the concept of civil society resurrected during authoritarian states?
The concept of civil society was resurrected during authoritarian states to signify a set of social and political practices that sought to engage with state power
In civil society, individuals and groups challenged unresponsive and authoritarian states through peaceful, non-violent methods like strikes, protest marches, demonstrations, dissemination of information, and forming associational life through reading clubs and discussion forums
What are the theoretical foundations of civil society?
Historically, civil society was theorised as a space between the state and the individual, emphasising the need to monitor, engage with, and hold state power accountable
How did civil society emerge in Eastern Europe?
In Eastern Europe, civil society emerged as a site where people, organised into groups, could pursue democratic projects in freedom from bureaucratic state power
What is the basic precondition of democracy according to civil society theory?
The basic precondition of democracy is that state power must be monitored, engaged with, and made accountable through intentional and engaged citizen action
How has the meaning of civil society shifted over time?
Civil society was initially a revolutionary and dynamic concept but has become a consensual, “flattened” term, losing its original ambiguities and tensions
This reductionist approach has sidelined broader political and social dimensions, undermining its potential for deep democratic engagement
What is the role of donor influence in the evolution of civil society?
Multilateral organizations and donor agencies promoted civil society as a solution for democracy and development, reducing it to NGOs and voluntary agencies, thus conceptualising civil society as only consisting of voluntary agencies, or what is termed the ‘third sector’
How have theorists like Tocqueville, Hegel, Marx, and Gramsci viewed the relationship between civil society and the state?
Tocqueville (1835, 1840): Civil society limits the state
Hegel (1821): Civil society is a necessary stage in the formation of the state
Marx: Civil society is the source of power for the state
Gramsci (1929-1935): Civil society is the space where the state constructs its hegemony in alliance with dominant classes
These perspectives suggest that civil society and the state are interdependent, with each constituting the other. Today, they have often been uncoupled
Why did civil society become popular in developing countries?
Civil society became popular in developing countries due to widespread disillusionment with state-led development
It legitimised citisens’ demands on the state, promoted state accountability, and provided an autonomous space for democratic projects
What are the challenges and criticisms of civil society in developing countries?
Inequality and exclusion: Civil society often mirrors existing power imbalances, with marginalized groups struggling for representation
Co-optation by donors: NGOs risk being tools for bypassing state sovereignty in the Global South
Romanticized expectations: Civil society is neither inherently democratic nor transformative; its effectiveness depends on its inhabitants and their struggles
Disenchantment in Eastern Europe: After the dismantling of state institutions and market openings, there was austerity, unemployment, ethnic discrimination, and violence, leading to disillusionment with civil society
What led to the flattening out of civil society, according to Neera Chandhoke?
Association with democracy: Civil society’s connection to the fall of authoritarian regimes led donors to view it as a “sure recipe” for democracy
Discontent with traditional representation: Bureaucratic, unresponsive political parties and trade unions led activists to view civil society as an alternative to formal politics
State pluralization: After the post-Washington Consensus, the state was expected to share functions with civil society organizations, leading to the rise of NGOs
Reduction to the ‘Third Sector’: Civil society is now mainly seen as voluntary agencies
How did civil society impact development and democracy in different regions?
In India, civil society was noisy, vibrant, and creative, with active movements challenging state agendas
In Africa, the 1990s protest movements were conceptualized as civil society versus the state, termed the “second liberation of the continent”
Across the Global South, civil society was seen as an alternative to failing state-led projects
What were the consequences of civil society in Eastern Europe after the fall of the Soviet Union?
The dismantling of state institutions and market openings led to austerity, massive unemployment, ethnic discrimination, and ethnic explosions
People became disenchanted with civil society after the initial enthusiasm
What did Lavalle et al. (2005) argue about the participation of civil organizations versus individuals?
Lavalle et al. (2005) argued that the dominant focus on individual citizen participation is misplaced
In participatory institutions, civil organizations representing different sectors of the poor are the primary participants
Most active representatives of the poor in São Paulo were well-connected to conventional political actors, necessitating a polity-centered approach
How do political connections affect the effectiveness of civil organisations?
Civil organisations with ties to political parties and state agencies are more effective in representing the poor
They are not co-opted and are more likely to organise public demonstrations and demand action from the government through multiple channels
These organisations participate at higher rates due to their ability to influence participatory institutions and access policy-related resources
How does the design of participatory institutions influence participation?
The structure and rules of participatory institutions significantly influence which organisations participate
Features such as territorial cycles (favouring local associations) and thematic cycles (favouring issue-based organisations) can mitigate wealth-based disparities among organisations
What does the integration of direct and representative democracy in participatory institutions accomplish?
The integration of civil organisations into broader political networks in participatory institutions blurs the lines between direct and representative democracy, enhancing their effectiveness
What are the broad empirical lessons from Lavalle et al.’s (2005) study on civil society in São Paulo?
Civil organisations representing the poor participate substantially in participatory policy processes alongside individual citisens
Ties to political parties and state agencies enhance civil organisations’ ability to represent the poor
The capacities of civil organisations to participate vary, and only a minority are membership-based
Institutional design influences participation, neutralising wealthier organisations’ advantages
What is the polity-centered approach to participation in civil society?
The polity-centered approach sees participatory institutions as political products negotiated iteratively between state and societal actors
It emphasises that institutional design features favor some actors over others and that civil organisations with political ties benefit from better access to resources and influence
How are different types of NGOs categorised in the civil society context?
Advocacy NGOs: Focus on transforming social problems into public issues to influence policy or private behaviour
Local Associations: Represent territorially-defined communities or movements
Coordinators: Coordinate debate and action among member organisations, often representing issue-based imagined communities
Service Nonprofits: Provide services to individuals, often with a religious or charitable focus
What are the key distinctions between the civil society and polity approaches to participation?
Civil society approach views civil society as a distinct, virtuous sphere independent of politics, but lacks differentiation within the diverse actors of civil society
Polity approach focuses on the interconnectedness of civil and political actors, viewing participatory institutions as products of political negotiation and providing a stronger analytical basis for understanding participation dynamics
What did Michael Bratton (1989) suggest about NGOs and civil society?
Bratton suggested that NGOs significantly bolster civil society through their participatory and democratic approach
How does the dominant liberal view of NGOs and civil society relate to democracy?
The liberal view posits that a vibrant and autonomous civil society, along with an effective state, is necessary for balancing demands from different interest groups, thus supporting democracy
NGOs are seen as integral to strengthening civil society and democracy
How does the liberal democratic theory relate to civil society and the state?
Liberal democratic theory holds that the state should provide accountable government, and civil society should enjoy civil and political rights and associational autonomy
A strong state and a strong civil society are seen as complementary and essential to each other
What is the role of civil society in democratic transitions and consolidation?
Civil society mobilises pressure for political change during democratic transitions and checks state abuses, prevents authoritarian resurgence, encourages citizen participation, and enhances state legitimacy during democratic consolidation
What are the flaws in the liberal democratic perspective of NGOs in strengthening civil society?
The liberal democratic perspective oversimplifies democratic transitions and consolidation, ignoring the complexities, contradictions, and local contexts in which NGOs operate
How has the growth of NGOs been misinterpreted in relation to civil society?
The growth of NGOs has often been equated with the strengthening of civil society, overlooking the diversity, internal contradictions, and differing capacities of NGOs
This conflation overlooks how NGOs can replicate societal inequalities and remain dependent on external donors
What is the impact of NGOs on developing societies?
NGOs empower marginalised groups, expand citizen participation, and advocate for policy reforms, as seen in countries like Chile, Brazil, Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand
However, they can also weaken state legitimacy, especially when they fill gaps in service provision or function as a “parallel state”
What are the negative effects of NGO professionalisation and donor dependence?
Professionalisation and donor dependence distance NGOs from grassroots constituencies, leading them to replicate societal divisions rather than challenge them
In some countries, NGO leadership operates with personalised rule, and NGO activities tend to favour urban elites over rural populations
What is the role of donor funding in NGO activities?
Donor funding drives the proliferation of NGOs but emphasises service delivery over political activism
NGOs become more accountable to donors than to grassroots communities, with urban-based elites dominating the NGO sector
How do NGOs interact with the state in Latin America and other regions?
NGOs in Latin America often function as partners in state-sponsored programs, legitimising neoliberal policies
In countries like Brazil, NGOs have played consultative roles, legitimising government policy rather than challenging it
What is the dual impact of NGOs on the state?
NGOs strengthen state legitimacy by delivering services but weaken state capacity by diverting resources and accountability away from governments
How do NGOs fit into Tocquevillian and Gramscian perspectives on civil society?
Tocquevillian perspective: Civil society is inherently “good,” and NGOs are microcosms of the democratic process
Gramscian perspective: Civil society is a contested space reflecting broader societal struggles, where power dynamics shape the role and impact of NGOs
How has the neoliberal era affected NGOs?
NGOs in the neoliberal era have become increasingly embedded in the political and economic agenda, often serving as tools for donor-driven development
In Latin America, NGOs have been used to implement the neoliberal model, reducing their autonomy and transformation potential
How does civil society contribute to democratization?
Civil society mobilizes against authoritarian rule by organizing protests, advocacy, and grassroots movements
What are some historical examples of civil society movements leading to democratic transitions?
South Korea, Chile, Poland, South Africa, Nigeria
“People Power” revolution in the Philippines (1986) led to the fall of Ferdinand Marcos
What is a critique of civil society’s role in democratization?
Overemphasizing civil society ignores the role of political elites and negotiated transitions in democratization
What is an alternative perspective on civil society’s role in democratization?
Civil society must work alongside institutional reforms and state capacity building rather than solely opposing authoritarianism
How does civil society hold governments accountable?
Through human rights groups, voter education initiatives, and anti-corruption watchdogs
Independent media and think tanks expose abuses and influence policy
What is a critique of civil society as a government watchdog?
Civil society can be co-opted by the state, especially in weak democracies, limiting its independence
What is an alternative perspective on civil society’s accountability role?
Civil society needs legal protections and autonomy from the state to function effectively
How does associational life enhance democratic participation?
Tocqueville emphasized voluntary associations as key to political engagement
Women’s groups in Latin America and trade unions in Eastern Europe contributed to democratic consolidation
What is a critique of the role of associational life in democracy?
Participation in civil society does not always translate into broader democratic engagement (e.g., low voter turnout in the U.S.)
What is an alternative perspective on democratic participation?
Strong political parties may be more effective than fragmented civil society in mobilizing participatio
How does civil society mitigate social divisions?
Cross-cutting organizations reduce ethnic, religious, and ideological tensions.
Labour unions and issue-based movements have reduced polarization in post-authoritarian societies
What is a critique of civil society’s role in reducing polarization?
Some civil society groups can deepen polarization (e.g., fundamentalist or nationalist movements)
What is an alternative approach to mitigating social divisions?
State-led integration policies may be needed to prevent civil society from becoming a battleground for social conflicts
How does civil society contribute to political leadership?
Organizations like The Evelio B. Javier Foundation train local politicians
Civil society leaders transition into formal politics in post-authoritarian democracies
What is a critique of civil society as a leadership pipeline?
Civil society actors may lack experience or legitimacy to govern effectively
What is an alternative perspective on leadership recruitment?
Political parties should be the primary vehicles for leadership development
Why is political institutionalization key to democratic consolidation?
Strong political parties, independent judiciaries, and effective legislatures ensure stability
What is a critique of political institutionalization?
Over-reliance on institutions may neglect grassroots democracy and civic engagement
What is an alternative perspective on democratic consolidation?
Civil society and institutional reforms should complement each other, not be alternatives
What is structural power in labor movements?
Workers’ leverage based on their location in the economic system, such as labor shortages or working in essential industries
What is associational power in labor movements?
Power derived from forming collective organizations like trade unions
What is collective bargaining?
A formal negotiation process between workers and management to secure better wages, working conditions, and benefits
What is the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU)?
The only legal trade union in China, controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
Why are independent trade unions ineffective in China?
They are prohibited, and workplace unions are dependent on management, making them ineffective
What role did the Yantian International Container Terminal (YICT) play in labor struggles?
It is one of the world’s busiest ports, where workers staged successful strikes in 2007 and 2013
How did YICT workers use structural power?
Critical role in supply chains allowed them to disrupt global trade
Stable employment & labor shortages increased their bargaining power
What were the outcomes of YICT strikes?
2007: Wage increases, paid lunch breaks, and a union were established
2013: Workers won a 30% wage increase and housing benefits
What challenges did YICT unionism face?
State-controlled unions limited worker autonomy
Management resistance created ongoing tensions
What is Polanyi’s view on counter-movements?
They occur spontaneously and mechanically in response to market expansion
What is a critique of Polanyi’s theory?
It ignores organization, social structures, and class dynamics in counter-movements
What was the National Alliance of People’s Movements (NAPM)?
A coalition against globalization, liberalization, and privatization in India
What ideological frameworks did NAPM draw upon?
Gandhianism, Ambedkarism, environmentalism, feminism, and socialism
What were the core tenets of NAPM?
Resistance to neoliberalism and state-led modernization
Resistance to casteism and communalism
Commitment to non-violence
Decentralized democracy
Why did NAPM fail to influence policy?
Class and caste contradictions between farmers and Dalits
Fragmentation and lack of national coordination
What divided farmers and Dalits in NAPM?
Farmers: Led by middle and upper-caste landowners.
Dalits: Inspired by Ambedkar, favored modernization to break caste barriers
Why did Dalits’ views on globalization shift?
As liberalization harmed Dalits, movements like the National Commission for Dalit Human Rights (NCDHR) joined NAPM
Why was it difficult for NAPM to unify movements?
Diverse neoliberal experiences made coordination difficult
Single-issue politics prevented a unified national agenda
