Week 4.2 - Feminist Theories and International Development

Question 1

How was development originally defined in early theories?

Answer 1

Development was equated with GDP growth and capital accumulation, excluding unpaid care work from economic estimates

Question 2

What was the demographic transition theory in early development models?

Answer 2

It emphasized the need for investible surpluses and assumed a shift from high mortality-high fertility to low mortality-low fertility

Question 3

How did modernization theory view women’s roles?

Answer 3

It suggested that modern attitudes and technology would free women from traditional patriarchal constraints, but in practice, women were only prioritized in family planning programs

Question 4

What did Helen Ware (1981) find regarding women in development research?

Answer 4

Prior to 1975, less than 1% of 60 key development texts referred to women

Question 5

What was the significance of the 1975 UN Conference on Women in Mexico?

Answer 5

It was a turning point in acknowledging gender disparities in development policies

Question 6

What did Boserup (1970) highlight about gender division of labor?

Answer 6

Western planners ignored variations, such as male vs. female farming systems, and the role of tools like the plow in shaping gender inequality

Question 7

What were the errors in WID approaches according to Tinker and Rogers?

Answer 7

Omission: Ignoring women’s roles in economies
Reinforcement: Strengthening stereotypes
Imposition: Applying Western norms without local context

Question 8

How was WID received within institutions like USAID?

Answer 8

It had limited funding ($1M out of $4B total budget), few women in leadership roles, and faced hostility and trivialization from male colleagues

Question 9

What resistance did WID advocates face?

Answer 9

Personal attacks, jokes, and dismissive attitudes about “exporting women’s lib” and “destroying the family”

Question 10

How does Marxism explain the subjugation of women?

Answer 10

It traces gender oppression to settled agriculture, surplus generation, and the need for monogamy to ensure heirs

Question 11

What role does capitalism play in gender inequality?

Answer 11

It separates domestic (reproductive) and public (productive) labor, making women’s unpaid labor a “hidden subsidy” for capital

Question 12

How can women achieve emancipation under Marxist theory?

Answer 12

By participating in public production, reducing dependence on patriarchal household structures

Question 13

How does socialist feminism differ from WID?

Answer 13

It moves away from methodological individualism, analyzing capitalism and patriarchy as interconnected but varying across contexts

Question 14

What is the role of local patriarchy in capitalism?

Answer 14

Different capitalist regimes (e.g., export-oriented vs. plantation economies) are mediated by local structures of patriarchy

Question 15

What does GAD emphasize in change processes?

Answer 15

Collective action by women and bottom-up pressures for transformation

Question 16

How does gender division of labor (GDOL) function as a social structure?

Answer 16

It becomes a constraint when task allocation is institutionalized, shaping individuals’ aptitudes and life chances

Question 17

What is ‘cathexis’ in gender identity formation?

Answer 17

It refers to the emotional attachment to gender roles, making individuals resistant to policies that challenge existing gender norms

Question 18

What did Elson argue about policy implementation?

Answer 18

Policymakers often prioritize male privilege over policy success

Question 19

What are instrumental arguments for gender equality?

Answer 19

Women’s economic participation benefits families, reduces poverty, and increases human capital investment

Question 20

What did Collier (1989) argue about gender in structural adjustment programs (SAPs)?

Answer 20

Gender disaggregation can improve microeconomic understanding of SAP impacts

Question 21

What is the ‘reproductive tax’ according to Palmer?

Answer 21

Women’s unpaid domestic labor imposes an invisible burden on their economic participation

Question 22

How do SAPs impact gender equality?

Answer 22

They assume flexibility in labor allocation but ignore constraints in household labor, disproportionately burdening women

Question 23

What is the ‘scissors effect’ in SAPs?

Answer 23

Cutbacks in social services increase demands on women’s unpaid time, while economic pressures force them into paid work

Question 24

What is the relationship between gender equality and economic growth?

Answer 24

Gender equality contributes to growth, but economic growth does not consistently improve gender equality

Question 25

Why is the impact of economic growth on gender equality inconsistent?

Answer 25

Growth’s effects depend on structural factors like labor market segmentation, policy frameworks, and patriarchal norms

Question 26

What did Goldin find about female labor force participation in the U.S.?

Answer 26

Economic growth in 1930-50 created respectable service-sector jobs that encouraged women’s workforce entry

Question 27

How does feminist critique challenge "quiet revolutions" in women’s employment?

Answer 27

Claims of transformation (e.g., India’s IT sector) are based on limited data, ignoring continued joblessness and gender discrimination

Question 28

What is the "female altruism hypothesis"?

Answer 28

The idea that women are more likely to invest in children’s well-being

Question 29

What evidence challenges this hypothesis?

Answer 29

Some studies show no significant difference between maternal and paternal spending on child welfare

Question 30

What is the feminist response to Duflo’s critique?

Answer 30

Women’s economic behavior is shaped by social structures, not just personal altruism

Question 31

How does gender discrimination manifest in labor markets?

Answer 31

Women receive lower wages, have fewer job opportunities, and are underrepresented in high-paying sectors

Question 32

What is the "double shift" problem?

Answer 32

Women perform both paid labor and unpaid domestic work, limiting their economic mobility

Question 33

What are the two main causal pathways linking gender equality to growth?

Answer 33

Family-mediated: Women invest more in children’s education and health Market-mediated: Equalizing opportunities increases overall productivity

Question 34

How do different economies integrate women into the workforce?

Answer 34

Oil-rich economies (e.g., Egypt): FLFPR rose with public sector jobs, declined with privatization Export-driven economies (e.g., Bangladesh): Women entered low-paid garment work Informal economies (e.g., Ghana): Women’s labor force participation remained high but insecure

Question 35

What barriers exist to women’s economic participation?

Answer 35

Legal discrimination: Unequal inheritance, land ownership, and credit access Market biases: Women earn lower returns even with equal skills Social constraints: Cultural norms limit mobility and job opportunities

Question 36

What strategies does the World Bank recommend for gender equality?

Answer 36

Strengthening women’s land rights, expanding childcare services, and improving access to markets

Question 37

What are the three interlocking crises highlighted by the pandemic?

Answer 37

Care crisis: Increased unpaid care work, burdening women Environmental crisis: Economic instability worsened ecological damage Macroeconomic crisis: Market-driven policies failed to address these issues

Question 38

Why are nonmarket goods (e.g., care, environment) essential to economies?

Answer 38

They sustain market economies but are undervalued in mainstream economic models

Question 39

How did COVID-19 expose gender disparities in healthcare?

Answer 39

Women made up the majority of frontline health workers but were underpaid and overworked

Question 40

What policy changes are needed post-COVID?

Answer 40

Shift from market-driven economic models to social provisioning, integrating care and environmental sustainability

Question 41

What is the significance of gender as an analytical category in feminist theory?

Answer 41

It counters the neglect of women’s experiences by introducing feminism as a theoretical perspective and recognizing male dominance as a major social institution

Question 42

What is intersectionality?

Answer 42

It examines how multiple social dimensions (e.g., race, gender, class) interact to create overlapping systems of inequality

Question 43

What are key methodological challenges in studying intersectionality?

Answer 43

Traditional research methods struggle to capture multiple inequalities simultaneously Feminist research often rejects "reductionist" methods like quantitative analysis, limiting the range of knowledge produced

Question 44

What is anticategorical complexity?

Answer 44

Rejects fixed categories (e.g., race, gender, class) as artificial social constructs Views categories as simplistic fictions that perpetuate inequality Uses deconstruction, genealogy, discourse analysis as methods Limitation: Hard to measure or analyze inequality empirically

Question 45

What is intracategorical complexity?

Answer 45

Focuses on particular marginalized groups at intersections (e.g., Black women, Latina domestic workers) Acknowledges that categories are socially constructed but still have real effects Uses case studies, ethnography, personal narratives as methods Limitation: Findings may lack generalizability

Question 46

What is intercategorical complexity?

Answer 46

Uses categories strategically to analyze inequality between groups Recognizes that categories exist and need measurement to track power shifts Uses comparative analysis, large-scale data studies, statistical modeling as methods Limitation: Can be criticized for reinforcing fixed categories

Question 47

What did McCall’s study on wage inequality reveal?

Answer 47

Different economic structures shape inequality differently: Industrial cities (e.g., Detroit) → High gender inequality, moderate class/racial inequality Postindustrial cities (e.g., Dallas) → High class and racial inequality, low gender inequality Immigrant-heavy cities (e.g., Miami) → Low gender inequality, high class and racial inequality High-tech cities (e.g., St. Louis) → Mixed inequalities

Question 48

What are the implications of McCall’s findings?

Answer 48

A one-size-fits-all approach (e.g., affirmative action, living wage laws) may not work across different contexts Rejecting categories entirely (anticategorical approach) limits empirical research Focusing only on one group (intracategorical approach) limits generalizability Using categories strategically (intercategorical approach) allows measuring inequalities over time

Question 49

Why are feminists skeptical about quantitative research?

Answer 49

It is often linked to positivism, seen as incompatible with feminist theory Concerns about oversimplification and ignoring lived experiences However, some argue statistical methods can help analyze intersectionality systematically

Question 50

Why is GDP an inadequate measure of economic progress?

Answer 50

Excludes unpaid care work and environmental degradation Fails to account for inequality and social well-being Feminist economists argue GDP prioritizes market activity over human welfare

Question 51

What are alternatives to GDP?

Answer 51

Human Development Index (HDI) → Includes health, education, income Wellbeing indicators → Social and ecological measures

Question 52

Why should the focus shift from economic growth to a wellbeing economy?

Answer 52

Growth should be a means, not an end A wellbeing economy prioritizes health, education, sustainability over GDP expansion New Zealand has adopted wellbeing-based economic policies

Question 53

What challenges exist in transitioning to a wellbeing economy?

Answer 53

Global market resistance and policy inertia Policymakers still rely on GDP as a standard measure Alternative: A green growth model that allows GDP growth but prioritizes sustainability

Question 54

Why do feminist economists emphasize care work?

Answer 54

Care work is undervalued and excluded from GDP Recognizing unpaid labor is essential for a functioning economy COVID-19 exposed the importance of care work, but policies did not shift

Question 55

What is a proposed solution for including care work in economic metrics?

Answer 55

National accounts that value unpaid labor as a central part of the economy

Question 56

How does GDP fail to account for environmental issues?

Answer 56

GDP measures economic activity, not environmental harm It does not factor in climate change, biodiversity loss, or sustainability

Question 57

What is the argument for shifting to a degrowth economy?

Answer 57

A low-carbon, degrowth economy is necessary to prevent further environmental damage Feminist foreign policy can promote sustainable development internationally

Question 58

What are challenges in redistributing responsibility for climate change?

Answer 58

Climate change accountability is politically contentious Some countries resist taking responsibility for historical emissions

Question 59

What is an alternative approach to degrowth?

Answer 59

A mixed model that integrates sustainability with market incentives rather than full economic contraction