Week 4.2 - Feminist Theories and International Development Flashcards
How was development originally defined in early theories?
Development was equated with GDP growth and capital accumulation, excluding unpaid care work from economic estimates
What was the demographic transition theory in early development models?
It emphasized the need for investible surpluses and assumed a shift from high mortality-high fertility to low mortality-low fertility
How did modernization theory view women’s roles?
It suggested that modern attitudes and technology would free women from traditional patriarchal constraints, but in practice, women were only prioritized in family planning programs
What did Helen Ware (1981) find regarding women in development research?
Prior to 1975, less than 1% of 60 key development texts referred to women
What was the significance of the 1975 UN Conference on Women in Mexico?
It was a turning point in acknowledging gender disparities in development policies
What did Boserup (1970) highlight about gender division of labor?
Western planners ignored variations, such as male vs. female farming systems, and the role of tools like the plow in shaping gender inequality
What were the errors in WID approaches according to Tinker and Rogers?
Omission: Ignoring women’s roles in economies
Reinforcement: Strengthening stereotypes
Imposition: Applying Western norms without local context
How was WID received within institutions like USAID?
It had limited funding ($1M out of $4B total budget), few women in leadership roles, and faced hostility and trivialization from male colleagues
What resistance did WID advocates face?
Personal attacks, jokes, and dismissive attitudes about “exporting women’s lib” and “destroying the family”
How does Marxism explain the subjugation of women?
It traces gender oppression to settled agriculture, surplus generation, and the need for monogamy to ensure heirs
What role does capitalism play in gender inequality?
It separates domestic (reproductive) and public (productive) labor, making women’s unpaid labor a “hidden subsidy” for capital
How can women achieve emancipation under Marxist theory?
By participating in public production, reducing dependence on patriarchal household structures
How does socialist feminism differ from WID?
It moves away from methodological individualism, analyzing capitalism and patriarchy as interconnected but varying across contexts
What is the role of local patriarchy in capitalism?
Different capitalist regimes (e.g., export-oriented vs. plantation economies) are mediated by local structures of patriarchy
What does GAD emphasize in change processes?
Collective action by women and bottom-up pressures for transformation
How does gender division of labor (GDOL) function as a social structure?
It becomes a constraint when task allocation is institutionalized, shaping individuals’ aptitudes and life chances
What is ‘cathexis’ in gender identity formation?
It refers to the emotional attachment to gender roles, making individuals resistant to policies that challenge existing gender norms
What did Elson argue about policy implementation?
Policymakers often prioritize male privilege over policy success
What are instrumental arguments for gender equality?
Women’s economic participation benefits families, reduces poverty, and increases human capital investment
What did Collier (1989) argue about gender in structural adjustment programs (SAPs)?
Gender disaggregation can improve microeconomic understanding of SAP impacts
What is the ‘reproductive tax’ according to Palmer?
Women’s unpaid domestic labor imposes an invisible burden on their economic participation
How do SAPs impact gender equality?
They assume flexibility in labor allocation but ignore constraints in household labor, disproportionately burdening women
What is the ‘scissors effect’ in SAPs?
Cutbacks in social services increase demands on women’s unpaid time, while economic pressures force them into paid work
What is the relationship between gender equality and economic growth?
Gender equality contributes to growth, but economic growth does not consistently improve gender equality
Why is the impact of economic growth on gender equality inconsistent?
Growth’s effects depend on structural factors like labor market segmentation, policy frameworks, and patriarchal norms
What did Goldin find about female labor force participation in the U.S.?
Economic growth in 1930-50 created respectable service-sector jobs that encouraged women’s workforce entry
How does feminist critique challenge “quiet revolutions” in women’s employment?
Claims of transformation (e.g., India’s IT sector) are based on limited data, ignoring continued joblessness and gender discrimination
What is the “female altruism hypothesis”?
The idea that women are more likely to invest in children’s well-being
What evidence challenges this hypothesis?
Some studies show no significant difference between maternal and paternal spending on child welfare
What is the feminist response to Duflo’s critique?
Women’s economic behavior is shaped by social structures, not just personal altruism
How does gender discrimination manifest in labor markets?
Women receive lower wages, have fewer job opportunities, and are underrepresented in high-paying sectors
What is the “double shift” problem?
Women perform both paid labor and unpaid domestic work, limiting their economic mobility
What are the two main causal pathways linking gender equality to growth?
Family-mediated: Women invest more in children’s education and health
Market-mediated: Equalizing opportunities increases overall productivity
How do different economies integrate women into the workforce?
Oil-rich economies (e.g., Egypt): FLFPR rose with public sector jobs, declined with privatization
Export-driven economies (e.g., Bangladesh): Women entered low-paid garment work
Informal economies (e.g., Ghana): Women’s labor force participation remained high but insecure
What barriers exist to women’s economic participation?
Legal discrimination: Unequal inheritance, land ownership, and credit access
Market biases: Women earn lower returns even with equal skills
Social constraints: Cultural norms limit mobility and job opportunities
What strategies does the World Bank recommend for gender equality?
Strengthening women’s land rights, expanding childcare services, and improving access to markets
What are the three interlocking crises highlighted by the pandemic?
Care crisis: Increased unpaid care work, burdening women
Environmental crisis: Economic instability worsened ecological damage
Macroeconomic crisis: Market-driven policies failed to address these issues
Why are nonmarket goods (e.g., care, environment) essential to economies?
They sustain market economies but are undervalued in mainstream economic models
How did COVID-19 expose gender disparities in healthcare?
Women made up the majority of frontline health workers but were underpaid and overworked
What policy changes are needed post-COVID?
Shift from market-driven economic models to social provisioning, integrating care and environmental sustainability
What is the significance of gender as an analytical category in feminist theory?
It counters the neglect of women’s experiences by introducing feminism as a theoretical perspective and recognizing male dominance as a major social institution
What is intersectionality?
It examines how multiple social dimensions (e.g., race, gender, class) interact to create overlapping systems of inequality
What are key methodological challenges in studying intersectionality?
Traditional research methods struggle to capture multiple inequalities simultaneously
Feminist research often rejects “reductionist” methods like quantitative analysis, limiting the range of knowledge produced
What is anticategorical complexity?
Rejects fixed categories (e.g., race, gender, class) as artificial social constructs
Views categories as simplistic fictions that perpetuate inequality
Uses deconstruction, genealogy, discourse analysis as methods
Limitation: Hard to measure or analyze inequality empirically
What is intracategorical complexity?
Focuses on particular marginalized groups at intersections (e.g., Black women, Latina domestic workers)
Acknowledges that categories are socially constructed but still have real effects
Uses case studies, ethnography, personal narratives as methods
Limitation: Findings may lack generalizability
What is intercategorical complexity?
Uses categories strategically to analyze inequality between groups
Recognizes that categories exist and need measurement to track power shifts
Uses comparative analysis, large-scale data studies, statistical modeling as methods
Limitation: Can be criticized for reinforcing fixed categories
What did McCall’s study on wage inequality reveal?
Different economic structures shape inequality differently:
Industrial cities (e.g., Detroit) → High gender inequality, moderate class/racial inequality
Postindustrial cities (e.g., Dallas) → High class and racial inequality, low gender inequality
Immigrant-heavy cities (e.g., Miami) → Low gender inequality, high class and racial inequality
High-tech cities (e.g., St. Louis) → Mixed inequalities
What are the implications of McCall’s findings?
A one-size-fits-all approach (e.g., affirmative action, living wage laws) may not work across different contexts
Rejecting categories entirely (anticategorical approach) limits empirical research
Focusing only on one group (intracategorical approach) limits generalizability
Using categories strategically (intercategorical approach) allows measuring inequalities over time
Why are feminists skeptical about quantitative research?
It is often linked to positivism, seen as incompatible with feminist theory
Concerns about oversimplification and ignoring lived experiences
However, some argue statistical methods can help analyze intersectionality systematically
Why is GDP an inadequate measure of economic progress?
Excludes unpaid care work and environmental degradation
Fails to account for inequality and social well-being
Feminist economists argue GDP prioritizes market activity over human welfare
What are alternatives to GDP?
Human Development Index (HDI) → Includes health, education, income
Wellbeing indicators → Social and ecological measures
Why should the focus shift from economic growth to a wellbeing economy?
Growth should be a means, not an end
A wellbeing economy prioritizes health, education, sustainability over GDP expansion
New Zealand has adopted wellbeing-based economic policies
What challenges exist in transitioning to a wellbeing economy?
Global market resistance and policy inertia
Policymakers still rely on GDP as a standard measure
Alternative: A green growth model that allows GDP growth but prioritizes sustainability
Why do feminist economists emphasize care work?
Care work is undervalued and excluded from GDP
Recognizing unpaid labor is essential for a functioning economy
COVID-19 exposed the importance of care work, but policies did not shift
What is a proposed solution for including care work in economic metrics?
National accounts that value unpaid labor as a central part of the economy
How does GDP fail to account for environmental issues?
GDP measures economic activity, not environmental harm
It does not factor in climate change, biodiversity loss, or sustainability
What is the argument for shifting to a degrowth economy?
A low-carbon, degrowth economy is necessary to prevent further environmental damage
Feminist foreign policy can promote sustainable development internationally
What are challenges in redistributing responsibility for climate change?
Climate change accountability is politically contentious
Some countries resist taking responsibility for historical emissions
What is an alternative approach to degrowth?
A mixed model that integrates sustainability with market incentives rather than full economic contraction
