Week 5

Question 1

Auditory perceptual learning

Answer 1

occurs when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experience

Question 2

implicit learning

Answer 2

When we exhibit changes in behavior without having intended to learn something

Question 2

implicit memory

Answer 2

A type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to encode. It’s the type of memory one makes without intent

Question 3

classical conditioning

Answer 3

Describes stimulus-stimulus learning. Occurs whenever neutral stimuli are associated with psychologically significant events. Animal behaves as if it has learned to associate a stimulus with a significant event

Question 4

non-associative learning

Answer 4

single repeated exposure leads to a change in behaviour

Question 5

Chunking

Answer 5

The process of grouping information together using our knowledge

Question 6

Encoding

Answer 6

The pact of putting information into memory

Question 7

Perceptual learning

Answer 7

Occurs when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experiences

Question 8

Explicit memory

Answer 8

Knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered

Question 9

working memory

Answer 9

The form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation

Question 10

incidential learning

Answer 10

occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express

Question 11

Intentional learning

Answer 11

Any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention

Question 12

Learning methods

Answer 12

spacing learning, interleaving multiple sets, testing yourself

Question 13

Transfer appropriate processing

Answer 13

A principle that states that memory performance is superior when a test taps the same cognitive process as the original encoding activity

Question 14

Unconditioned stimulus

Answer 14

In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits the response for conditioning occurs

Question 15

Unconditioned response

Answer 15

In classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before (or in the absence of) conditioning

Question 16

Operant

Answer 16

a behaviour that is controlled by its consequences. The simplest example is the rat’s lever-pressing, which is controlled by the presentation of the reinforcer

Question 17

Thorndikes law of effect

Answer 17

when a behavior has a positive (satisfying) effect or consequence, it is likely to be repeated in the future. When a behavior has a negative (painful/annoying) consequence, it is less likely to be repeated in the future.

Question 18

punishers

Answer 18

effects that decrease behaviours

Question 19

is classical conditioning involuntary or voluntary

Answer 19

involuntary

Question 20

is operant conditioning involuntary or voluntary

Answer 20

voluntary

Question 21

Operant conditioning

Answer 21

the animal behaves as if it has learned to associate a behaviour with a significant event

Question 22

Fear conditioning

Answer 22

A type of classical or Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a foot shock. As a consequence of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear. The phenomenon is thought to be involved in the development of anxiety disorders in humans

Question 23

Conditioned compensatory responses

Answer 23

in classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response. It functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response. Often seen in conditioning when drugs are used as unconditioned stimuli

Question 24

Blocking

Answer 24

In classical conditioning, the finding that no conditioning occurs to a stimulus if it is combined with a previously conditioned stimulus during conditioning trials. Suggests that information, surprise value, or prediction error is important in conditioning

Question 25

Predicition error

Answer 25

When the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the conditioned stimuli that are present on the trial. Prediction error is necessary to create Pavlovian conditioning (and associative learning generally). As learning occurs over repeated conditioning trials, the conditioned stimulus increasingly predicts the unconditioned stimulus, and prediction error declines. Conditioning works to correct or reduce prediction error declines.

Question 26

Preparedness

Answer 26

the idea that an organism’s evolutionary history can make it easy to learn a particular association. Because of preparedness, you are more likely to associate the taste of tequila, and not the circumstances surrounding drinking it, with getting sick. Similarly, humans are more likely to associate images of spiders and snakes than flowers and mushrooms with aversive outcomes like shocks

Question 27

Extinction

Answer 27

Decrease in the strength of a learned behavior that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behavior is no longer reinforced (in instrumental conditioning). The term describes both the procedure (the US or reinforcer is no longer presented) as well as the result of the procedure (the learned response declines). Behaviors that have been reduced in strength through extinction are said to be “extinguished”

Question 28

spontaneous recovery

Answer 28

Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning

Question 29

Renewal effect

Answer 29

recovery of an extinguished response that occurs when the context is changed after extinction. Especially strong when the change of context involves return to the context in which conditioning originally occurred. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning

Question 30

context

Answer 30

Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs. For instance, the Skinner box or room in which learning takes place is the classic example of a context. However, “context” can also be provided by internal stimuli, such as the sensory effects of drugs and mood states. It can also be provided by a specific period in time- the passage of time is sometimes said to change the “temporal context”

Question 31

Stimulus control

Answer 31

when an operant behavior is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it

Question 32

Discriminative stimulus

Answer 32

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced. It is said to “set the occasion’ for the operant response

Question 33

reinforcer devaluation effect

Answer 33

the finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable

Question 34

goal directed

Answer 34

Instrumental behavior that is influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the association between the behavior and its consequence and the current value of the consequence. Sensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect

Question 35

Habit

Answer 35

Instrumental behavior that occurs automatically in the presence of a stimulus and is no longer influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the value of the reinforcer. Insensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect

Question 36

Observational learning

Answer 36

learning by observing the behaviors of others

Question 37

Social learning theory

Answer 37

The theory that people can learn new responses and behaviors by observing the behavior of others

Question 38

vicarious reinforcement

Answer 38

Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person

Question 39

Knowledge emotions

Answer 39

A family of emotions associated with learning, reflecting, and exploring. These emotions come about the unexpected and unfamiliar events happen in the environment. Broadly speaking, they motivate people to explore unfamiliar things, which builds knowledge and expertise over the long run

Question 40

Four knowledge emotions

Answer 40

Surprise, Interest, confusion, and awe

Question 41

why are surprise, interest, confusion, and awe considered knowledge emotions?

Answer 41

These emotions happen when something violates what people expected to believed. These emotions are fundamental to learning: over time, they build useful knowledge about the world

Question 42

Functionalist theories of emotion

Answer 42

theories of emotion that emphasize the adaptive role of an emotion in handling common problems throughout evolutionary history

Question 43

Appraisal theories

Answer 43

propose that each emotion is caused by a group of appraisals, which are evaluations and judgements of what events in the world mean for our goals and well-being

Question 44

Surprise

Answer 44

An emotion rooted in expectancy violation that orients people toward the unexpected event

Question 45

Appraisal associated with surprise

Answer 45

A single “expectedness check” seems to be involved. When an event is “high contrast”- it sticks out against the background of what people expected to perceive or experience-people become surprised

Question 46

Interest

Answer 46

an emotion associate with curiosity and intrigue, interest motivates engaging with new things and learning more about them. It is one of the earliest emotions to develop and a resource for intrinsically motivated learning across the life span

Question 47

Intrinsically motivated form of learning

Answer 47

Learning that is “for its own sake”- such as learning motivated by curiosity and wondering- instead of learning to gain rewards or social approval

Question 48

Coping potential

Answer 48

People’s beliefs about their ability to handle challenges

Question 49

Primary effect of interest

Answer 49

exploration: People will explore and think about the new and intriguing thing, be it an interesting object, person, or idea

Question 50

Trait curiosity

Answer 50

stable individual-differences in how easily and how often people become curious

Question 51

People with low curiosity

Answer 51

prefer activities and ideas that are tried and true and familiar

Question 52

Openness to experience

Answer 52

One of the five major factors of personality, this trait is associated with higher curiosity, creativity, emotional breadth, and open-mindedness. People high in openness to experience are more likely to experience interest and awe

Question 53

People in high curiosity

Answer 53

prefer things that are offbeat and new

Question 54

Confusion

Answer 54

happens when people are learning something that is both unfamiliar and hard to understand

Question 55

Facial expressions associated with confusion

Answer 55

they usually furrow, scrunch, or lower their eyebrows and purse or bite their lips

Question 56

Awe

Answer 56

A state of fascination and wonder-is the deepest and probably least common of the knowledge emotions

Question 57

Accommodation

Answer 57

changing one’s beliefs about the world and how it works in light of new experience

Question 58

Chills/shivers/thrills

Answer 58

Involves getting goosebumps on the skin, especially the scalp, neck, back, and arms, usually as a wave that starts at the head and moves downward. Part of strong awe experiences, but people often experience in response to everyday events, such as compelling music and movies

Question 59

How do knowledge emotions enhance learning

Answer 59

Emotions clearly play important roles in everyday challenges such as responding to threats and building relationships. Aid in other, more intellectual challenges for humans. Compared with animals, we are born with little knowledge but have the potential for enormous intelligence. Emotions such as surprise, interest, confusion, and awe first signal that something awry has happened that deserves our attention. Motivates us to engage with new things that strain our understanding of the world and how it words

Question 60

Learning

Answer 60

A broad concept that describes any change in behaviour that results from experience

Question 61

Reinforcer

Answer 61

positive outcome that reinforces the behaviour