Week 5 Flashcards
Auditory perceptual learning
occurs when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experience
implicit learning
When we exhibit changes in behavior without having intended to learn something
implicit memory
A type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to encode. It’s the type of memory one makes without intent
classical conditioning
Describes stimulus-stimulus learning. Occurs whenever neutral stimuli are associated with psychologically significant events. Animal behaves as if it has learned to associate a stimulus with a significant event
non-associative learning
single repeated exposure leads to a change in behaviour
Chunking
The process of grouping information together using our knowledge
Encoding
The pact of putting information into memory
Perceptual learning
Occurs when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experiences
Explicit memory
Knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered
working memory
The form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation
incidential learning
occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express
Intentional learning
Any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention
Learning methods
spacing learning, interleaving multiple sets, testing yourself
Transfer appropriate processing
A principle that states that memory performance is superior when a test taps the same cognitive process as the original encoding activity
Unconditioned stimulus
In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits the response for conditioning occurs
Unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before (or in the absence of) conditioning
Operant
a behaviour that is controlled by its consequences. The simplest example is the rat’s lever-pressing, which is controlled by the presentation of the reinforcer
Thorndikes law of effect
when a behavior has a positive (satisfying) effect or consequence, it is likely to be repeated in the future. When a behavior has a negative (painful/annoying) consequence, it is less likely to be repeated in the future.
punishers
effects that decrease behaviours
is classical conditioning involuntary or voluntary
involuntary
is operant conditioning involuntary or voluntary
voluntary
Operant conditioning
the animal behaves as if it has learned to associate a behaviour with a significant event
Fear conditioning
A type of classical or Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a foot shock. As a consequence of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear. The phenomenon is thought to be involved in the development of anxiety disorders in humans
Conditioned compensatory responses
in classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response. It functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response. Often seen in conditioning when drugs are used as unconditioned stimuli
Blocking
In classical conditioning, the finding that no conditioning occurs to a stimulus if it is combined with a previously conditioned stimulus during conditioning trials. Suggests that information, surprise value, or prediction error is important in conditioning
Predicition error
When the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the conditioned stimuli that are present on the trial. Prediction error is necessary to create Pavlovian conditioning (and associative learning generally). As learning occurs over repeated conditioning trials, the conditioned stimulus increasingly predicts the unconditioned stimulus, and prediction error declines. Conditioning works to correct or reduce prediction error declines.
Preparedness
the idea that an organism’s evolutionary history can make it easy to learn a particular association. Because of preparedness, you are more likely to associate the taste of tequila, and not the circumstances surrounding drinking it, with getting sick. Similarly, humans are more likely to associate images of spiders and snakes than flowers and mushrooms with aversive outcomes like shocks
Extinction
Decrease in the strength of a learned behavior that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behavior is no longer reinforced (in instrumental conditioning). The term describes both the procedure (the US or reinforcer is no longer presented) as well as the result of the procedure (the learned response declines). Behaviors that have been reduced in strength through extinction are said to be “extinguished”
spontaneous recovery
Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning
Renewal effect
recovery of an extinguished response that occurs when the context is changed after extinction. Especially strong when the change of context involves return to the context in which conditioning originally occurred. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning
context
Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs. For instance, the Skinner box or room in which learning takes place is the classic example of a context. However, “context” can also be provided by internal stimuli, such as the sensory effects of drugs and mood states. It can also be provided by a specific period in time- the passage of time is sometimes said to change the “temporal context”
Stimulus control
when an operant behavior is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it
Discriminative stimulus
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced. It is said to “set the occasion’ for the operant response
reinforcer devaluation effect
the finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable
goal directed
Instrumental behavior that is influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the association between the behavior and its consequence and the current value of the consequence. Sensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect
Habit
Instrumental behavior that occurs automatically in the presence of a stimulus and is no longer influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the value of the reinforcer. Insensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect
Observational learning
learning by observing the behaviors of others
Social learning theory
The theory that people can learn new responses and behaviors by observing the behavior of others
vicarious reinforcement
Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person
Knowledge emotions
A family of emotions associated with learning, reflecting, and exploring. These emotions come about the unexpected and unfamiliar events happen in the environment. Broadly speaking, they motivate people to explore unfamiliar things, which builds knowledge and expertise over the long run
Four knowledge emotions
Surprise, Interest, confusion, and awe
why are surprise, interest, confusion, and awe considered knowledge emotions?
These emotions happen when something violates what people expected to believed. These emotions are fundamental to learning: over time, they build useful knowledge about the world
Functionalist theories of emotion
theories of emotion that emphasize the adaptive role of an emotion in handling common problems throughout evolutionary history
Appraisal theories
propose that each emotion is caused by a group of appraisals, which are evaluations and judgements of what events in the world mean for our goals and well-being
Surprise
An emotion rooted in expectancy violation that orients people toward the unexpected event
Appraisal associated with surprise
A single “expectedness check” seems to be involved. When an event is “high contrast”- it sticks out against the background of what people expected to perceive or experience-people become surprised
Interest
an emotion associate with curiosity and intrigue, interest motivates engaging with new things and learning more about them. It is one of the earliest emotions to develop and a resource for intrinsically motivated learning across the life span
Intrinsically motivated form of learning
Learning that is “for its own sake”- such as learning motivated by curiosity and wondering- instead of learning to gain rewards or social approval
Coping potential
People’s beliefs about their ability to handle challenges
Primary effect of interest
exploration: People will explore and think about the new and intriguing thing, be it an interesting object, person, or idea
Trait curiosity
stable individual-differences in how easily and how often people become curious
People with low curiosity
prefer activities and ideas that are tried and true and familiar
Openness to experience
One of the five major factors of personality, this trait is associated with higher curiosity, creativity, emotional breadth, and open-mindedness. People high in openness to experience are more likely to experience interest and awe
People in high curiosity
prefer things that are offbeat and new
Confusion
happens when people are learning something that is both unfamiliar and hard to understand
Facial expressions associated with confusion
they usually furrow, scrunch, or lower their eyebrows and purse or bite their lips
Awe
A state of fascination and wonder-is the deepest and probably least common of the knowledge emotions
Accommodation
changing one’s beliefs about the world and how it works in light of new experience
Chills/shivers/thrills
Involves getting goosebumps on the skin, especially the scalp, neck, back, and arms, usually as a wave that starts at the head and moves downward. Part of strong awe experiences, but people often experience in response to everyday events, such as compelling music and movies
How do knowledge emotions enhance learning
Emotions clearly play important roles in everyday challenges such as responding to threats and building relationships. Aid in other, more intellectual challenges for humans. Compared with animals, we are born with little knowledge but have the potential for enormous intelligence. Emotions such as surprise, interest, confusion, and awe first signal that something awry has happened that deserves our attention. Motivates us to engage with new things that strain our understanding of the world and how it words
Learning
A broad concept that describes any change in behaviour that results from experience
Reinforcer
positive outcome that reinforces the behaviour
