Week 13 Flashcards
Category
A set of entities that are equivalent in some way. Usually the items are similar to one another
Psychology of categories
Concerns how people learn, remember, and use informative categories. The core of intelligent behaviour
Concepts
Allow you to extend what you have learned about a limited number of objects to a potentially infinite set of entities
Two part definition that specifies what is in and out of the category
- Provides the necessary features for category membership: what must objects have in order to be in it
- Those features must be jointly sufficient for membership: If an object has those features, then it is in the category
Fuzzy category boundaries
Categories that have unclear boundaries that shift over time. Eg. A tomato can be considered a fruit or a vegetable
Typicality category boundaries
A related finding that turns out to be most important is that even among items that clearly are in a category, some seem to be “better” members than others. Eg. If someone says “there’s a bird in my yard”, the image will be a small bird rather than an ostrich or a penguin.
Prototype
The most typical category member
Less typical items
Items that are less and less similar to the prototype
Influences of typicality on cognition
Typical items are judged category members more often
speed of categorization is faster for typical items
typical members are learned before atypical ones, learning a category is easier if typical examples are provided
in language comprehension, references to typical members are understood more easily
In language production, people tend to say typical items before atypical ones
One possible answer to source of typicality
The frequency with which we encounter the object: we see a lot more robins than penguins, so they must be more typical. Frequency does have some effect, but it is not actually the most important variable
Family resemblance theory
Rosch and Mervis proposed that items are likely to be typical if they:
1. have the features that are frequent in the category
2. do not have features frequent in other categories
Categories within categories
Many important categories fall into hierarchies, in which more concrete categories are nested inside larger, abstract categories
The preference for which category we use to label things
The use of a single, consistent name helped children learn the name for things. Children’s first labels for categories tend to be exactly those names that adults prefer to use
Basic level of categorization
the neutral, preferred category for a given object, at an intermediate level of specificity.
Basic level categories are usually easier to learn. Children use these categories first in language learning, and superordinates are especially difficult for children to fully acquire
How is basic level of categorization not universal
Americans and many other people living in industrialized societies know so much less than our ancestors did about the natural world, so our basic level has “moved up” to what would have been the superordinate level a century ago.
Experts in categories
Experts in a domain often have a preferred level that is more specific than non-experts. the preferred level is not based on how different categories are in the world, but that people’s knowledge and interest in categories have an important effect
Explaination of the basic level preference
Basic level categories are more differentiated: the category members are similar to one another, but they are different from members of other categories
Superordinate categories
Members are not very similar to one another. Not as useful
Subordinate categories
Very similar to other categories. Not very useful
Prototype theory
Suggests that people have a summary representation of the category, a mental description that is meant to apply to the category as a whole
Typical category members
Have more, higher-weighted features. Easier to match them to your conceptual representation
Less Typical Items
have fewer lower-weighted features. They don’t match your representation as well. This makes people less certain in classifying such items
Borderline items
May have features in common with multiple categories or not to be very close to any of them
Exemplar theory
Denies that there is a summary representation. In order to categorize an object, one calculates how similar it is to each exemplar in one’s memory
Similarity scores
how you calculate how similar it is to each exemplar in your memory. Scores are added up for each category and then compared, and the category with the highest score is chosen
How people learn concepts
By seeing exemplars over and over again until they learn to classify them correctly. Under such conditions, it seems likely that people eventually memorize the exemplars
Experiments that have been done to compare the prototype and exemplar theories
The exemplar theory seems to have won most of these comparisons
The experiments are somewhat limited in that they usually involve a small number of exemplars that people view over and over again
Knowledge approach to concepts
Emphasizes that concepts are meant to tell us about real things in the world, and so our knowledge of the world is used in learning and thinking about concepts
Psychological essentialism
People tend to believe that some categories-most notably natural kinds such as animals, plants, or minerals- have an underlying property that is found only in that category and that causes its other features. Most categories don’t actually have essences, but this is sometimes a firmly held belief
Signs of essentialism
Objects are believed to be either in or out of the category membership or of properties connected to the essence. For living things, the essence is passed on to progeny
Essence/ essentialism
Helpful in dealing with much of the natural world, but it may be less helpful when it is applied to humans. Considerable evidence suggests that people think of gender, racial, and ethnic groups as having essences, which serves to emphasize the difference between groups and even justify discrimination
Cognitive development
Refers to the development of thinking across the lifespan
Thinking
involves the higher mental processes; problem-solving, reasoning, creating, conceptualizing, categorizing, remembering, planning, and so on. Also involves other mental processes that seem more basic and at which even toddlers are skilled-such as perceiving objects and events in the environment, acting skillfully on objects to obtain goals, and understanding and producing language
Piagets stage theory
Theory that development occurs through a sequence of discontinuous stages: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages. Focuses on whether children progress through qualitatively different stages of development
Sociocultural theories
Theory founded in large part by Lev Vygotsky that emphasizes how other people and the attitudes, values, and beliefs of the surrounding culture influence children’s development. Emphasizes how other people and the attitudes, values, and beliefs of the surrounding culture, influence children’s development
Information processing theories
Theories that focus on describing the cognitive processes that underlie thinking at any one age and cognitive growth over time. David Klahr examined the mental processes that produce thinking at any one time and the transition processes that lead to growth in that thinking
Nature
Refers to our biological endowment, the genes we receive from our parents
Nurture
Refers to the environments, social as well as physical, that influence our development, everything from the womb in which we develop before birth to the homes in which we grow up, the schools we attend, and the many people with whom we interact
Nature vs Nurture debate
Every aspect of development is produced by the interaction of genes and environment. The way in which nature and nurture work together can be seen in findings on visual development. Children’s contributions to their own cognitive development grow larger as they grow older. Older children and adolescents choose their environments to a larger degree
quantitative changes
Gradual, incremental change
Qualitative changes
Large, fundamental change. Stage theories such as Piaget’s posit that each stage reflects qualitative change
Continuous
Ways in which development occurs in gradual incremental manner, rather than through sudden jumps
discontinuous
Development that does not occur in a gradual incremental manner
Sensorimotor stage
Birth to 2 years. Period within Piagetian theory from birth to age 2, during which children come to represent the enduring reality of objects. Children’s thinking is largely realized through their perceptions of the world and their physical interactions with it. Mental representations are very limited
object permanence task
The Piagetian task in which infants below about 9 months of age fail to search for an object that is removed from their sight, and if not allowed to search immediately for the object, act as if they do not know that it continues to exist. Infants less than 9 months old do not understand that objects continue to exist even when out of sight
Preoperational reasoning stage
2 to 6/7 years. Period within Piagetian theory from age 2 to 7, in which children can represent objects through drawing and language but cannot solve logical reasoning problems, such as conversation problems. 2 to 7 year olds tend to focus on a single dimension, even when solving problems that would require them to consider multiple dimensions
Piaget’s conversation problems
Problems pioneered by Piaget in which physical transformation of an object or set of objects changes a perceptually salient dimension but not the quality that is being asked about
Concrete operational reasoning stage
6/7-11/12. Piagetian stage between ages 7 and 12 when children can think logically about concrete situations but not engage in systematic scientific reasoning. Children begin to think logically in most situations. According to Piaget, they still cannot think in systematic scientific ways, even when such thinking would be useful
Formal operational reasoning stage
11/12-throughout life. Piagetian stage starting at 12 years and continuing for the rest of life, in which adolescents may gain the reasoning powers of educated adults. Children attain the reasoning power of mature adults, which allows them to solve the pendulum problem and a wide range of other problems. This stage tends not to occur without exposure to formal education in scientific reasoning, and appears to be largely or completely absent from some societies that do not provide this type of education
Problem with Piaget’s theory
More recent researchers have obtained findings indicating that cognitive development is considerably more continuous than Piaget claimed. Diamond found that on the object permeance task, infants show earlier knowledge if the waiting period is shorter. Children’s specific experiences can greatly influence when developmental changes occur
Phonemic awareness
Awareness of the component sounds within words-is a crucial skill in learning to read. To measure awareness of the component sounds within words, researchers ask children to decide whether two words rhyme, to decide whether the words start with the same sound, to identify the component sounds within words, and to indicate what would be left if a given sound were removed from a word
prefrontal cortex
Important in planning and flexible problem-solving and continues to develop throughout adolescence
Autism/ Autism spectrum disorder
a developmental condition that usually emerges in the first three years and persists throughout the individuals’ life
Phenotypic heterogeneity
Each person with autism exhibits symptoms in these domains in different ways and to varying degrees. Reflects the high degree of variability in the genes underlying autism
How can autism spectrum disorder be defined
by the presence of profound difficulties in social interactions and communication combined with the presence of repetitive or restricted interests, cognitions and behaviours. The diagnostic process involves a combination of parental reports and clinical observation. Children with significant impairments across the social/ communication domain who also exhibit repetitive behaviours can qualify for a diagnosis of autism
Symptoms used to compile criteria for the diagnosis of autism
Difficulties in social functioning are present in varying degrees for simple behaviours such as eye contact, and complex behaviours like navigating the give and take of a group conversation, difficulties with social information processing occur in both visual and auditory sensory modalities, basic social difficulties, onset of the social deficits appear to precede difficulties in other domains and may emerge as early as 6 months of age
Social perception
Refers to the initial stages in the processing of information that culminates in the accurate analysis of the dispositions and intentions of other individuals
Social brain
A set of interconnected neuroanatomical structures that process social information, enabling the recognition of other individuals and the evaluation of their mental states
What does the social brain consist of
The amygdala, the orbital frontal cortex, fusiform gyrus, and the posterior superior temporal sulcus region, among other structures
Role of the amygdala in the social brain
Helps us recognize the emotional states of others and also to experience and regulate our own emotions
Role of the orbital frontal cortex in the social brain
Supports the “reward” feelings we have when we are around other people
role of the fusiform gyrus in the social brain
located at the bottom of the surface for the temporal lobes, detects faces and supports face recognition
Role of the posterior superior temporal sulcus in the social brain
Recognizes the biological motion, including eye, hand and other body movements, and helps to interpret and predict the actions and intentions of others
Functional magnetic resonance imaging and event relating potentials
complementary brain imaging methods used to study activity in the brain across the life span. Each method measures a distinct facet of brain activity and contributes unique information to our understanding of brain function
FMRI
uses powerful magnets to measure the levels of oxygen within the brain, which vary according to changes in neural activity. As the neurons in specific brain regions “work harder”, they require more oxygen.
What does FMRI detect
the brain regions that exhibit a relative increase in blood flow while people listen to or view social stimuli in the MRI scanner. The areas of the brain most crucial for different social processes are thus identified, with spatial information being accurate to the millimetre
Event related potential
Provides direct measurements of the firing of groups of neurons in the cortex. Non-invasive sensors on the scalp record the small electrical currents created by this neuronal activity while the subject views stimuli or listens to specific kinds of information. Specifies when dealing the timing of processing at the millisecond pace at which it unfolds
Social brain in children with autism
Children with autism display reduced sensitivity to biological motion. Individuals with autism have reduced activity i the superior temporal sulcus during biological motion perception.
Most investigated areas of the social brain in autism
Superior temporal sulcus, which underlies the perception and interpretation of biological motion, and the fusiform gyrus, which supports face perception
Autism and the fusiform gyrus
Reduced activity in the fusiform gyrus when viewing faces. Slowed processing of faces is a characteristic of autistic people that is shared by parents of children with autism and infants at increased risk for developing autism because of having a sibling with autism
Why is the integration of imaging methods critical for autism
Using face perception for example, the combination of fRMI and ERP could identify who, of those autistic individuals, show anomalies in the fusiform gyrus and then determine the stage of information processing at which these anomalies occur
Identification of distinct subgroups within autism
According to information about the brain would allow for a more accurate and detailed exposition of the individual differences seen in autistic people. This is critical for the success of investigations into the genetic basis of autism. Distinct findings from neuroimaging, or biomarkers, can help guide genetic research
Endophenotypes
Characteristics that are not immediately available to observation but that reflect an underlying genetic potential, expose the most basic components of a complex psychiatric condition and are more stable across the lifespan than observable behaviour
Why is it important to understand the effects of autism early in life
Early differences inattention to biological motion, for instance, can hinder subsequent experiences in attending to higher level social information, thereby driving development toward more severe difficulties and stimulating struggles in additional domains of functioning, such as language development. The absence of a firm diagnosis until behavioural symptoms emerge, supports are often delayed for two or more years, eclipsing a crucial period in which intervention may be particularly successful in ameliorating some of the social and communicative difficulties seen in autism
Why is behavioural observation unreliable and problematic
Even highly sophisticated behavioural methods, such as eye tracking, do not necessarily reveal reliable differences in Autistic infants. measuring the brain activity associated with social perception can detect differences that do not appear in behaviour until much later. The identification of biomarkers utilizing the imaging methods offers promise for earlier detection of atypical social development
How does brain imaging research offer hope for the future supports for autism
Many of the functions of the social brain demonstrate significant plasticity, meaning that their functioning can be affected by experience over time. In contrast to theories that suggest difficulty processing complex information or communicating across large expanses of the cortex, this malleability of the social brain is a positive prognosticator for the development of supports
How does the environment in which a person with autism lives affect them
The environment in which a person lives, especially social support from parents, friends, and instructors, can have a positive impact on the lives of autistic people. Research often reveals that it is not the symptoms of autism itself that interfere with a person’s well-being but the bullying, stigma, and concealment of symptoms that sometimes accompany autism
