Week 15 Flashcards
How has adolescence evolved historically
Evidence indicating that this stage is lengthening as individuals start puberty earlier and transition to adulthood later than in the past. Puberty today begins on average at age 10–11 years for girls and 11-12 for boys. This average age of onset has decreased gradually over time since the 19th century by 3-4 months per decade
Adolescence
Often characterized as a period of transformation, primarily, in terms of physical, cognitive, and socials-relational change. A developmental stage that has been defined as starting with puberty and ending with the transition to adulthood (approximately ages 10-20)
Factors that cause puberty age to decrease over time
Better nutrition, obesity, increased father absence, and other environmental factors
Some markers of the end of adolescence and beginning of adulthood
Completion of formal education, financial independence from parents, marriage, and parenthood. These transitions happen, on average, later now than in the past
What marks the onset of adolescence
Physical changes of puberty; growth spurts, boys experience growth of facial hair and a deepening of their voice, girls experience breast development and menstruation
Cognitive changes during adolescence
Shift from concrete to more abstract and complex thinking. Fostered by improvements during early adolescence in attention, memory, processing speed, and metacognition
Family relationships during adolescence
Remain important. Key changes during adolescence involves a renegotiation of parent-child relationships. Adolescents strive for more independence and autonomy. Parents’ distal supervision and monitoring become more important as adolescents spend more time away from parents.
Psychological control
Parents’ manipulation and intrusion into adolescents’ emotional and cognitive world through invalidating adolescents’ feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways
Romantic relationships during adolescence
Often short-lived rather than long-term committed partnerships, but their importance should not be minimized. Contribute to adolescents’ identity formation, changes in family and peer relationships, and adolescents’ emotional and behavioural adjustment
What are the effects of adolescents regarding their sexuality?
Parents, policymakers, and researchers have devoted a great deal of attention to adolescents’ sexuality, at large because of concerns related to sexual intercourse, contraception, and preventing teen pregnancies. Sexuality involves more than this narrow focus. Adolescence is often when individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender come to perceive themselves as such. Romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents experiment with new behaviours and identities
Why are adolescents bigger risk-takers than adults?
The brain’s cognitive control centres on the prefrontal cortex, increasing adolescents’ self-regulation and future orientation. Development of the different regions of the brain contributes to more risk-taking during middle adolescence because they are motivated to seek thrills
how does the influence of peers affect risk taking?
Influence of peers can be both positive and negative as adolescents experiment together with identity formation and new experiences. As children become adolescents, they usually begin spending more time with their peers and less time with their families, and peer interactions are increasingly unsupervised by adults
Homophily
Adolescents tend to associate with peers who are similar to themselves
how do peer groups evolve during adolescence
During adolescence, peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex. Adolescents within a peer group tend to be similar to one another in behaviour and attitudes
Deviant peer contagion
The process by which peers reinforce problem behaviour by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future problem behaviour
Negative peer pressure
Can lead adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic behaviour than they would alone or in the presence of their family. Adolescents are much more likely to drink alcohol, use drugs, and commit crimes when they are with their friends than when they are alone or with their family
Positive peer relationships
Peers serve as an important source of social support and companionship during adolescence, and adolescents with positive peer relationships are happier and better adjusted than those who are socially isolated or have conflictual peer relationships
Crowds
Adolescent peer groups are characterized by shared reputations or images. Reflect different prototypic identities and are often linked with adolescents’ social status and peers’ perceptions of their values of behaviours
Erikson’s classic theory of developmental stages
Identity formation was highlighted as the primary indicator of successful development during dolescence
Foreclosure
occurs when an individual commits to an identity without exploring options
Identity diffusion
Occurs when adolescents neither explore nor commit to any identities
Moratorium
A state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not year made commitments
Identity achievement
Occurs when individuals have explored different options and then made identity commitments
Patterson’s early versus late starter model of development of aggressive and antisocial behaviour
Distinguishes youths whose antisocial behaviour begins during childhood versus adolescence.
Early starters
At greater risk for long-term antisocial behaviour that extends into adulthood than are late starters
Late starters
Theorized to experience poor parental monitoring and supervision, aspects of parenting that become more salient during adolescence. Poor monitoring and lack of supervision contribute to increasing involvement with deviant peers, which in turn promotes adolescents’ own antisocial behaviour
Moffitt’s life course persistent verus adolescent-limited model
distinguishes between antisocial behaviour that begins in childhood versus adolescence. Moffitt regards adolescent-limited antisocial behaviour as resulting from “maturity gap” between adolescents’ dependence on and control by adults and their desire to demonstrate their freedom from adult constraint
Developmental models of anxiety and depression
Treat adolescence as an important period, especially in terms of the emergence of gender differences in prevalence rates that persist through adulthood
Rates of anxiety and depression in adolescence
Rates for some disorders are markedly higher in adolescence than in childhood or adulthood. Anxiety and depression are particularly concerning because suicide is one of the leading causes of death during adolescence
What effect does family adversity have on adolescents?
Adolescents with such problems generate stress in their relationships and select into more maladaptive social contexts. These processes are intensified for girls compared with boys because girls have more relationship-oriented goals related to intimacy and social approval, leaving them more vulnerable to disruption in these relationships
Academic achievement during adolescence
Predicted by interpersonal, intrapersonal, and institutional factors. Academic achievement is important in its own right as a marker of positive adjustment during adolescence but also because academic achievement sets the stage
How can adolescents’ gender affect how they behave and how others respond to them?
Early puberty appears to be associated with worse outcomes for girls than boys, likely in part because girls who enter puberty early tend to associate with older boys, which in turn is associated with early sexual behaviour and substance use
How can adolescents’ ethnicity or sexual orientation affect how they behave or how others respond to them?
Discrimination sometimes presents a set of challenges that nonminorities do not face
Differential susceptibility model
Genetic factors that make individuals more or less responsive to environmental experiences
Emerging adulthood theory
Theory that proposes that a new life stage has arisen between adolescence and young adulthood over the past half-century in industrialized countries
Roles of young people 50 years ago
few people pursued education beyond secondary school, few women worked in occupations outside the home, median marriage age for women was 20, median marriage age for men was 22, teenage adolescence led quickly and directly to stable adult roles in love and work
Roles of young people now
70% pursue education beyond secondary school, early twenties are a time for job instability; average number of job changes is 7, median age for marriage is 27 for women and 29 for men
Emerging adulthood
A new life stage extending from approximately ages 18-25, during which the foundation of an adult life is gradually constructed in love and work. Primary features include identity explorations, instability, focus on self-development, feeling incompletely adult, and a broad sense of possibilities
The age of identity explorations
Most distinctive characteristic of emerging adulthood. An age when people explore various possibilities in love and work as they move toward making enduring choices. Through trying new possibilities, they develop
Age of instability
Frequent moves from one resident to another. Reflects the explorations going on in emerging adults’ lives; some move out of their parents’ household for the first time to attend college whereas others move out to be independent
The self focused age
A time between adolescents’ reliance on parents and adults’ long-term commitments in love and work, and during these years, emerging adults focus on themselves as they develop the knowledge, skills, and self-understanding they will need for adult life
The age of feeling in-between
It is only when people reach their late twenties and early thirties that a clear majority feels adult. Most emerging adults have the subjective feeling of being in a traditional period of life, on the way to adulthood but not there yet
The age of possibilities
The age when many different futures remain possible, and when little about a person’s direction in life has been decided for certain. Tends to be an age of high hopes and great expectations, in part because few of their dreams have been tested in the fires of real life
OECD
Members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, comprised of the world’s wealthiest countries
Industrialized countries
The economically advanced countries of the world, in which most of the world’s wealth is concentrated
Non-industrialized countries
the less economically advanced countries that comprise the majority of the world’s population. Most are currently developing at a rapid rate
Emerging adulthood in Europe (a OECD country)
Emerging adulthood is longest and most leisurely, median for ages entering marriage and parenthood is near 30, governments pay for tertiary education, assist young people in finding jobs
Tertiary education
education or training beyond secondary school, usually taking place in a college, university, or vocational training program
Emerging adulthood in Asia (OECD country)
Marriage and parenthood around age 30, carry legacy of individualism with them, emphasis on collectivism and family obligations, they pursue identity explorations and self-development during emerging adulthood with narrow boundaries set by their sense of obligations to others
Emerging adulthood for young people in non-industrialized countries
Exists only for the wealthier segment of society, mainly the urban middle class, whereas the rural and urban poor-the majority of the population-have no emerging adulthood and may even have no adolescence because they enter adult-like work at an early age and also begin marriage and parenthood relatively early
What happens as globalization proceeds
Economic development proceeds along with it, and the proportion of young people who experience emerging adulthood will increase as the middle class expands. By the end of the 21st century, emerging adulthood is likely to be normative worldwide
Heterogeneity
Inter-individual and subgroup differences in level and rate of change over time. Reflects differences in rates of biogenetic and psychological aging and the sociocultural contexts and history of people’s lives
theories of aging
Describe how multiple factors interact and change over time. They describe why functioning differs on average between young, middle-aged, young-old, and very old adults and why there is heterogeneity within these groups
Life course theories
Theory of development that highlights the effects of social expectations of age-related life events and social roles; additionally considers the lifelong cumulative effects of membership in specific cohorts and sociocultural subgroups and exposure to historical events
Cohorts
Groups of people typically born in the same year or historical period, who share common experiences over time; sometimes called a generation
Life span theories
Theory of development that emphasizes the patterning of lifelong within-and between-person differences in the shape, level, and rate of change trajectories. Emphasizes the patterning of lifelong intra and inter-individual differences in the shape, level, and rate of change
Inter-and inter-individual differences
Different patterns of development observed within an individual (intra) or between individuals (inter)
What do life course and life span researchers rely on
Longitudinal studies to examine the hypotheses about different patterns of aging associated with the effects of biogenetic, life history, social, and personal factors
longitudianl studies
Research method that collects information from individuals at multiple time points over time, allowing researchers to track cohort differences in age-related change to determine cumulative effects of different life experiences
Cross sectional studies
Research method that provides information about age group differences; age differences are confounded with cohort differences and effects related to history and time of study
Psychometric approach
Approach to studying intelligence that examines performance on tests of intellectual functioning
Fluid intelligence
Refers to information processing abilities, such as logical reasoning, remembering lists, spatial ability, and reaction time. Type of intelligence that relies on the ability to use information processing resources to reason logically solve novel problems
Crystallized intelligence
Encompasses abilities that draw upon experience and knowledge. Type of intellectual ability that relies on the application of knowledge, experience, and learned information. Measures include vocabulary tests, solving number problems, and understanding texts
How are systematic declines with age observed on cognitive tasks requiring self-initiated processing
Older adults tend to perform poorer than young adults on memory tasks that involve recall of information, where individuals must retrieve information they learned previously without the help of a list of possible choices. Older adults may have more difficulty recalling facts such as names or contextual details about where or when something happened
Working memory as we age
Our ability to simultaneously store and use information, becomes less efficient
Processing speed
the speed with which an individual can perceive auditory or visual information and respond to it
Inhibitory functioning as we age
The ability to focus on certain information while suppressing attention to less pertinent information, declines with age and may explain age differences in performance on cogntive tasks
What have longitudinal studies proposed about aging
Deficits in sensory functioning explain age differences in a variety of cognitive abilities
Recognition
Type of memory task where individuals are asked to remember previously learned information with the assistance of cues
Recognition memory tasks in older adults
Older adults often perform as well if not better than young adults on tests of work knowledge or vocabulary. With age often comes expertise, and research has pointed to areas where aging experts perform as well as or better than younger individuals. Accrued knowledge of everyday tasks help older adults make better decisions than young adults
why are adults not necessarily better drivers than young adults
Although older adults have more ears of driving experience, cognitive declines related to reaction time or attentional processes may pose limitations under certain circumstances
The big five traits
Extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to new experiences
What has research on adult personality and the big five found
Contemporary research shows that although some people’s personalities are relatively stable over time, others’ are not. Longitudinal studies reveal average changes during adulthood in the expression of some traits and individual differences in these patterns due to idiosyncratic life events. Adult personality traits predict important life outcomes including job success, health, and longevity
Autobiographical narratives
A qualitative research method used to understand characteristics and life themes that an individual considers to uniquely distinguish him-or herself from others. Suggests that as we age, themes that were relatively unimportant in young and middle adulthood gain in salience and that people view themselves as improving over time
Subjective age
A multidimensional construct that indicates how old (or young) a person feels and into which age group a person categorizes him or herself. After early adulthood, most people say that they feel younger than their chronological age, and the age between subjective age and actual age generally increases. On average, after 40 people report feeling 20% younger than their actual age
Age identity
How old or young people feel compared to their chronological age; after early adulthood, most people feel younger than their chronological age
Perceived physical age
one aspect that requires considerable self-related adaption in social and cultural contexts that value young bodies.
Self perceptions of aging
An individual’s perception of their own aging process; positive perceptions of aging have been shown to associate with greater longevity and health
Social ties across the life course
Social ties are accumulated, lost, and transformed
Social network
network of people with whom an individual is closely connected; social networks provide emotional, informational, and material support and offer opportunities for social engagement
What does Antonucci’s Convoy Model of Social Relations suggest
That the social connections that people accumulate are held together by exchanges in social support. The frequency, types, and reciprocity of the exchanges change with age and in response to need, and in turn, these exchanges impact the health and well-being of the givers and receivers in the convoy
Carstensen’s Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Theory proposed to explain the reduction of social partners in older adulthood; posits that older adults focus on meeting emotional over information-gathering goals, and adaptively select social partners who meet this need. To optimize the experience of positive affect, older adults actively restrict their social life to prioritize time spent with emotionally close significant others
What has research found about older marriages
Older married individuals who receive positive social and emotional support from their partner generally report better health than their unmarried peers. Despite the overall positive health effects of being married in old age, living as a couple can have a “dark side” if the relationship is strained or if one partner is the primary caregiver
Global subjective well being
Individuals’ perceptions of a satisfaction with their lives as a whole. This can include questions about life satisfaction or judgments of whether individuals are currently living the best life possible
What have researchers found about major life events such as widowhood, marriage, and unemployment
Different life events influence well-being in different ways, and individuals do not often adapt back to baseline levels of well-being. The influence of events, such as unemployment, may have a lasting negative influence on well-being as people age. Well-being is highest in early and later adulthood and lowest in midlife
Hedonic well-being
Refers to the emotional component of well-being and includes measures of positive and negative affect. T
Pattern of positive affect across the adult life span
Similar to that of global well-being, with experiences of positive emotions such as happiness ad enjoyment being highest in young and older adulthood
Experiences of negative affect
Tend to decrease with age
Experiences of sadness
Lowest in early and later adulthood compared to midlife
What does psychological well-being aim to evaluate
The positive aspects of psychosocial development, as opposed to factors of ill-being, such as depression or anxiety.
Ryff’s model of psychological well-being
Proposes six core dimensions of positive well-being. Older adults tend to report higher environmental mastery and autonomy, lower personal growth and purpose in life, and similar levels of positive relations with others as younger individuals
Average life expectancy
Mean number of years that 50% of people in a specific birth cohort are expected to survive. This is typically calculated from birth but is also sometimes recalculated for people who already reached a particular age
Successful aging
Includes three components: avoiding disease, maintaining high levels of cognitive and physical functioning, and having an actively engaged lifestyle
Three criteria of successful aging
The relative avoidance of disease, disability, and risk factors like high blood pressure, smoking, or obesity. The maintenance of high physical and cognitive functioning, active engagement in social and productive activities
How age-related changes are observed in the context of everyday life
Research has suggested that age-related declines in cognitive functioning across the adult life span may be slowed through physical exercise and lifestyle interventions. Societal and environmental factors also play a role and that there is much room for social change and technical innovation to accommodate the needs of the Baby Boomers and later generations as they age in the next decades
