week 5 Flashcards
what are the 3 basic components of moral development
moral affect/feelings
- eg. feelings of guilt, concern for others feelings
moral reasoning/cognitive
- eg. how we conceptualise right and wrong
moral behaviour
- eg. how we behave when we experience the temptation to cheat
what is moral affect
pos or neg emotions related to matters of right and wrong, can motivate behaviour
how can negative impact moral affect
neg emotions (shame and guilt ) can keep us from doing what we know is wrong
how can positive emotions impact moral aaffect
positive emotions (pride self-satisfaction) can occur when we do the right thing
what is a key component to moral affect
empathy
what is empathy
the vicarious experiencing of another persons feelings, is an emotional process that is important in moral development
what does empathy motivate
prosocial behaviour
- positive social acts, such as helping or sharing that reflect concern for the welfare of others
cognitive moral reasoning
the thinking process involved in deciding whether an act is right or wrong
how does moral reasoning progress
through an invariant sequence
fixed universal order of stages, each of which represent a consistent way of thinking about moral issues that is different from the stage preceding or following it
what is the main focus on moral reasoning
how decisions are made rather than what decisions are made
what behaviours we engage in
piagets theory of moral development aspects
premoral period
heternomous morality
autonomous morality
what is the premoral period for piagets theory of moral development
during the preschool years, children show little awareness or understanding of rules and cannot be considered moral beings
what is the heteronomous morality for piagets theory of moral development
children between 6-10 take rules seriously, believing that they are handed down by parents and other authority figures and are sacred and unalterable
they judge rule violations as wrong based on the extent of damage done, not paying much attention to whether the violator had good or bad intentions
what is the autonomous morality stage of piagets theory of development
10/11 most children enter a final stage of moral development in which they begin to appreciate that rules are agreements between individuals, agreements that can be changed through a consensus of those individuals
in judging actions, they pay more attention to whether the persons intentions were good or bad than to the consequences of the act
levels of kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning
Level 1: preconventional morality
Stage 1: punishment-and-obedience orientation
Stage 2: instrumental hedonism
Level 2: conventional morality
Stage 3: “good boy” or “good girl” morality
Stage 4: authority and social order-maintaining morality
Level 3: postconventional morality
Stage 5: morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepted law
Stage 6: morality of individual principles of conscience
Influences on moral reasoning
Cognitive growth
Social interactions with equals/peers
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory
Scoring procedures not sufficiently objective or consistent
Content of dilemmas too narrow
Dilemmas not aligned with real-life
No distinction between moral knowledge and social conventions
Gender and culture bias
what is Moral Behaviour
what we actually do when faced with temptation or with an opportunity to behave prosocially
how is moral behaviour learnt
the same way that other social behaviors are learned: through observational learning and reinforcement and punishment principles
what is moral behaviour influenced by
the situation
eg. Due to situational influences, what we do (moral performance) is not always reflective of our internalised values and standards (moral competence)
Bandura emphasised that moral cognition is linked to moral action through self-regulatory mechanisms that involve:
Monitoring and evaluating our actions
Disapproving of ourselves when we contemplate doing wrong
Approving of ourselves when we behave responsibly or humanely
characteristics of Moral Behaviour in Adolescence
Moral self-relevance
Development of self and identity
what is Moral self-relevance
The extent to which a moral approach is part of the person’s self-concept.
types of memory
Explicit Memory
Implicit Memory
what is Explicit Memory
involves intentional recollection of previous experiences (conscious, accessed directly)
what is Implicit Memory
is apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering. (unconscious, accessed indirectly)
what happens to explicit memory throughout the lifespan
Explicit memory capacity increases from infancy to adulthood
why does explicit memory capacity increase in age
Changes in basic capacities
Changes in memory strategies
Increased knowledge about memory
Increased knowledge about the world
Improvement in STM capacity and working memory capability thought to be driven by
increased speed and efficiency of processing
-Allows simultaneous mental operations
-Basic mental processes become automatic
what is the order of memory or encoding strategies
Rehearsal
Organisation
Elaboration
Four conclusions about development of explicit memory:
Older children are faster information processors; maturation of nervous system leads to improved short-term memory capacity and efficiency but age does not impact sensory register or long-term memory capacity
Older children use more effective memory strategies in encoding and retrieving information
Older children know more about memory
Older children know more in general and larger knowledge base improves ability to learn and remember
what is the preconventional level
emphasis on avoiding punishment and getting awards
what is the nature of stage 1 in preconventional level
good is what follows externally imposed rules and rewards and is whatever avoids punishment
what is the nature of stage 2 in preconventional level
good is whatever is agreeable to the individual and to anyone who gives or receives favours
what is the conventional level
emphasis on social rules
what is the nature of stage 3
good is whatever pleases or helps others and brings approval from friends and peer groups
what is the nature of stage 4
good is whatever conforms to exisiting laws, customs and authorities,
contributions for the good of society as a whole
what is postconventional level
emphasis on moral principles
what is the nature of stage 5
good depends upon consensus priciples in the face of various individual values; common principles should be uphelp for the ultimate welfare of society
what is the nature of stage 6
good is whatever is consistent with personal, general moral principles relating to universal justice and human rights that may be at odds with society laws
What is PsychosocialDevelopment?
the development of
the personality, and the acquisition of social
attitudes and skills, from infancy through
maturity.
what develops in regards to psychosocial development in early childhood
Relationships with Parents
Relationships with Siblings
Relationships with Peers
Gender Role Development
what are the 2 dimensions to parenting styles
Acceptance-responsiveness
Demandingness-control
what is Demandingness-control (sometimes called permissiveness-restrictiveness) parenting style
refers to how much control over decisions lies with the parent rather than with the child
what is Acceptance-responsiveness parenting style
refers to the extent to which parents are supportive, sensitive to their children’s needs, and willing to provide affection and praise when their children meet their expectations
Four basic patterns of child rearing emerge from crossing the acceptance and demandingness dimensions:
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Permissive
Uninvolved (Neglectful)
what is Authoritarian parenting
High demandingness-control and low acceptance-responsiveness
eg. Parents impose many rules, expect strict obedience, rarely explain why the child should comply with rules, and often rely on power tactics such as physical punishment to gain compliance
what is Authoritative parenting
High demandingness-control and high acceptance-responsiveness
eg. Parents set clear rules and consistently enforce them, but they also explain the rationales for their rules and restrictions, are responsive to their children’s needs and points of view, and involve their children in family decision-making
what is Permissive parenting
High in acceptance-responsiveness but low in demandingness-control
Permissive parents are indulgent with few rules and few demands
They encourage children to express their feelings and impulses and rarely exert control over their behavior
what is Uninvolved parenting
Low demandingness-control and low acceptance-responsiveness
They seem not to care much about their children and may even reject them
Uninvolved parents may be so overwhelmed by their own problems that they cannot devote sufficient energy to expressing love and setting and enforcing rules
what are the outcomes to authoritative parenting
high self-esteem, internalised moral standards, psychosocial maturity, academic success
outcomes for authoritarian parenting
anxiety, withdrawal, low self esteem
what are the outcomes for permissive parenting
impulsivity, disobedience, rebelliousness
what are the outcomes of uninvolved parents
poor social-emotional development and self control, social alienation, low self-estee
what parenting style leads to the less development for the child
uninvolved/neglectful
what parenting style tend to become hostile and antisocial adolescents who abuse substances and engage in rule-breaking behaviour
uninvolved/neglectful
what age do Children of neglectful parents display behavioural problems such as aggression and frequent temper tantrums
3
Parenting style varies according to
Cultural background
Specific circumstances
Birth order
Number of children
Changes and stresses in family
Temperament of child
Inconsistencies between parents can lead to
confusion
what is Sibling rivalry
the spirit of competition, jealousy, and resentment between brothers and sisters
is sibling rivalry normal
yeah
what motivates siblings to compete
parents time and resources
what is the most common cause of sibling conflict
possessions eg, toys and clothes
why are siblings important
Siblings provide emotional support
Older siblings often provide caregiving services for younger siblings
Older siblings also serve as teachers
Siblings provide social experience
what are often the outcomes of being an only child
higher in:
Self-esteem
Positive personality
Achievement motivation
Academic success
why are peers important
Peer relationships have developmental value
Peers help children learn that relationships are reciprocal
Peers force children to hone their social perspective-taking skills
Peers contribute to social-cognitive and moral development in ways that parents cannot
what percentage of toddlerhood is social interactions with peers
10%
what percentage of middle age childrens socialisation is with peers
30%
what does research tell us about peer relationships in middle childhood
Research indicates that peer groups typically contain children of different levels of competence
Gender segregation – play with same-sex companions – becomes increasingly strong with age
Do Peers Matter in Early Childhood
Early childhood is now recognised as a critical period of social development
why Do Peers Matter in Early Childhood
First time that children come in contact with peers outside of the family on a regular basis
Contact with peers comes simultaneously with cognitive development including:
Major advances in language development
Major advances in perspective-taking abilities, and hence capacity for cooperative play, prosocial behaviour (and antisocial behaviour!) increases
Advances in problem-solving ability means improved capacity to tackle conflict
From infancy to early childhood, children are also developing skills in…
Emotion regulation
Behaviour regulation
Behaviour regulation linked with
inhibitory control, control of aggressive impulses
Emotion regulation linked to
attachment and parent-child relationship
Early childhood development in peer relations includes
Conversational skill
Cooperative and prosocial behaviour (helping, sharing, comforting etc.)
Conflict and aggression, including problem-solving
Shared pretend play
Establishment of social networks
Differences in peer status emerge
Emergence of dominance hierarchies – power differentials within peer groups
Friendships become more stable and meaningful
Using sociometric techniques, children may be classified into the following categories of social status
popular
rejected
neglected
controversial
average
what is the popular social status
well liked by most and rarely disliked
what is the rejected social status
rarely liked and often disliked
what is the neglected social status
neither liked nor disliked (isolated children who seem to be invisible to their classmates)
what is the controversial social status
liked by many but also disliked by many (the fun-loving child with leadership skills who also bullies peers and starts fights)
what is the average social status
in the middle on both the liked and disliked scales
what is popularity affected by
personal characteristics that a child typically cannot change:
Physical attractiveness
Intelligence
Social competence
Well-regulated emotions
Rejected children may be characterised by the following
High levels of aggression
Tendency to social isolation, submissiveness, over-sensitivity to teasing, seen as “easy to push around”
Neglected children may be characterised as
Having reasonably good social skills
Nonaggressive
Tendency to be shy, withdrawn, and unassertive
controversial children characteristics
Controversial children often show good social skills and leadership qualities, like popular children, but they are also viewed as aggressive bullies, like many rejected children
what happens to popular childrens longterm social and psychological functioning
Popular children tend to be more prosocial, have higher quality friendships and better academic outcomes in the school years
what happens to rejected childrens longterm social and psychological functioning
Rejected children tend to exhibit more behavioural and self-regulation difficulties, have poorer quality and less positive peer relationships, and poorer academic outcomes
what happens to controversial childrens longterm social and psychological functioning
Controversial children have mixed trajectories – often admired and followed by their peers, but can cause social harm and elicit a mix of positive and negative reactions from teachers
what can buffer the negative effects of rejection, peer victimization and loneliness
Having just one good friend in early childhood
what impacts Gender-role development
sex and gender
what is biological sex
physical characteristics that define male and female
what is gender
the features that a society associates with or considers appropriate for men and women
the socially constructed categories of masculine and feminine
what are Gender roles
Societal expectations of males and females
Different from each other
Conform to stereotypes
what is Gender typing
Process of acquiring gender-consistent behaviours
how do children first learn to recognise sex differences
through perception
examples of sex perception
Female voice and female faces go together
Male voices go together with a male doll
what happens at 2 for gender role development
By two years of age children have developed an expectation of what is ”typical” behaviour and attributes for women and men e.g.,
Are more surprised if a man puts on makeup
at what age does gender labelling happen
2 but they lack the understanding of the stability of gender
what age are children very focused on what is girl and boy behaviour
preschool age
what is the gender role tragectary for preschool children
Rigidity about gender stereotypes is especially high during the preschool years (around ages 4 to 7), but decreases over the primary school years
what are the consequences for children who don’t conform to gender stereotypes
social consequences
what age do children begin to favour same-sex playmates
as early as 30 months old and strengthens during primary school years
what does gender segregation lead to
separate boys’ and girls’ peer groups and greater levels of same-sex interaction
why does gender segregation lead to greater levels of same sex interaction
Partly because of incompatibility between girls’ and boys’ play styles
