WEEK 4-8 Flashcards
Which side of the heart receives poorly oxygenated blood?
Right side of heart through SVC and IVC
Apex of the heart
Formed by inferolateral part of LEFT ventricle
- Lies posterior to the left 5th intercostal space in adults (9cm from median plane)
- Motionless throughout cardiac cycle
Anterior (sternocostal) surface
Formed mainly by RIGHT ventricle
Diaphragmatic (inferior) surface
Formed mainly by left ventricle and partly by right ventricle
Also related to central tendon of diaphragm
Right pulmonary surface
Formed mainly by the right atrium
Left pulmonary surface
Formed mainly by the left ventricle (forms cardiac impression of the left lung)
Peritoneum
Continuous, glistening and slippery transparent serous membrane
- lines the abdominopelvic cavity and invests the viscera
Mesentery
Double layer of peritoneum that occurs as a result of invagination of the peritoneum by an organ
- provides means for neurovascular communications
- Constitutes continuity of visceral and perietal peritoneum
What connects the liver to the anterior abdominal wall?
falciform ligament
What connects the liver to the stomach?
Hepatogastric ligament (membranous portion of lesser omentum)
What connects the liver to the duodenum?
Hepatoduodenal ligament (thickened edge of lesser omentum)
What connects the stomach to the inferior surface of diaphragm?
Gastrophrenic ligament
- phrenic means diaphragm
What connects the stomach to the spleen?
Gastrosplenic ligament
- Splenic meaning spleen
What connects the stomach to the transverse colon?
Gastrocolic ligament
- colic meaning colon
What are ‘bare areas’ in relation to peritoneum?
Every organ has to have an area that is nont covered with visceral peritoneum to allow entrance and exit of neurovascular structures
What is a peritoneal fold?
Reflection of peritoneum that is raised from the body wall by underlying blood vessels, ducts and ligaments formed by obliterated fetal vessels e.g. umbilical folds on internal surface of anterolateral abdominal wall
What is a peritoneal recess (or fossa)?
Pouch of peritoneum that is formed by a peritoneal fold
What is the function of the greater omentum?
To prevent the visceral peritoneum from adhering to the parietal peritoneum. Also to prevent infection
What does the foregut develop into?
Distal oesophagus, stomach, and proximal duodenum
In development, what structures are outgrowths of the foregut?
The liver, gallbladder and pancreas
What are the three layers of smooth muscle in the stomach?
Outer longitudinal, Inner circular, Innermost oblique
Where does the foregut end?
In the second (descending) part of the duodenum with the major duodenal papilla
Which type of muscle is in the superior to inferior thirds of the oesophagus respectively?
Superior third: Skeletal striated muscle
Middle third: Mixture of skeletal striated and smooth
Inferior third: smooth muscle
Where does the stomach lie in the supine position?
In the right and left upper quadrants (epigastric, umbilical (right) and hypochondrium and flank (left) regions
Cardial notch location
Between the oesophagus and the fundus
What structure is the stomach covered by?
Visceral peritoneum except for where the blood vessels run along its curvatures
What is the blood flow of the heart?
SVC/IVC (upper and lower trunk regions respectively)—> Right atrium—>Right ventricle—-> Pulmonary artery—>lungs—>Pulmonary veins—>Left atrium—> Left ventricle—> aorta (ascending for head and upper limbs and descending for lower trunk and limbs)
What systemic circulation?
The blood vessels that carry blood from the left side of the heart to the tissues and back to the right side of the heart
What is the diastole?
Ventricular elongation and filling
What is the systole?
Period of ventricular shortening and emptying
What is the Epicardium?
a thin external layer (mesothelium) formed by the visceral layer of serous pericardium
What is the Myocardium?
The THICK, MIDDLE helical layer composed of cardiac muscle
What is the Endocardium?
The THIN, INTERNAL layer (endothelium and subendothelial connective tissue) or lining membrane of the heart that also covers its valves
What do the walls of the heart mainly consist of?
Myocardium especially in the ventricles
What motion do the ventricles produce when contracting and why?
They produce a wringing motion due to the double helical orientation of the muscle fibres
Which part of the spiral of the ventricle causes the blood to be ejected?
the outer (basal) spiral contracts, first narrowing then shortening the heart, reducing the volume of the ventricular chambers thus ejecting blood
Which part of the spiral of ventricle causes the blood to come in (draw blood in)?
the inner (apical) spiral ELONGATES the heart, followed by widening as myocardium briefly relaxes, increasing the volume of chambers thus drawing blood from the atria
Which part of heart does the outer basal spiral constitute?
The outer wall of the RIGHT ventricle (fibres are nearly horizontal) AND the external layer of the outer wall of the LEFT ventricle (Is)
Which part of the heart does the deeper apical spiral constitute?
The INTERNAL layer of the outer wall of the left ventricle. It is a lighter appearance than the basal muscle and fibres are ‘criss-cross’ which makes up he interventricular septum
What in the heart is double layered?
The septum and outer wall of the left ventricle
What is the skeleton of the heart?
Complex framework of dense collagen forming four FIBROUS RINGS that surround the orifices of the valves, a right and left FIBROUS TRIGONE (formed by connections between rings), and the membraneous parts of the interatrial and interventricular septa
Atrioventricular groove also known as…
Coronary sulcus
which animals have a bileterally symmetrical body plan?
Arthropods and mammals
What are the four characteristics of all chordates?
Notochord,(skeletal), Dorsal hollow nerve cord, Pharyngeal slits(modified for breathing in some animals) or clefts and a muscular post anal tail (locomotion)
What are some common tetrapod characters?
Neck, Ribs, Fin skeleton, flat skull, eyes on top of skull
What are the four features of the amniotic egg?
Allatois, Amnion, Chorion, Yolk Sac
How are body plans classified?
Based on the tissue structures of organisms
How are animals classified?
By a heirachial classification of evermore comprehensive more inclusive categories (taxa are grouped into increasingly more inclusive groups)
What is a phylogeny?
Animal phylogeny describes the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species as a representation of their evolutionary relationships (common ancestors) . They can share common genes, metabolic pathways and structural proteins.
phylogenetic trees show…
patterns of descent
Which vertebrates don’t have jaws?
Hagfishes and lampreys
- They have no paired apendages (no fins)
What are vertebrates containing jaws called?
Gnathostomes . Jaws derived from pharangeal slits
What are the steps in the evolution of limbs with digits for tetrapods?
Developed a neck, stronger vertebral column, Ribs (reduced so body can move side to side), Supporting girdles (to support limbs)
Amphibia are modern tetrapods..what do they have?
Legs, lungs, often terrestrial
What are the features of the amniotes (reptiles and birds)?
The amniotic egg (waterproofing and gas exchange), Keratin (feathers, scales, beaks etc.)
Are mammals amniotes?
Yes. They produce milk and hair
Amniotes are…
Tetrapod vertebrates including birds, mammals and reptiles
What anatomical traits define order of primates?
`Specialised limbs for locomotion (quadrapaedal), lack of dietary specialisation which is relflected in dentition, visual aucity and reduced sense of smell (rely on vision rather than smell) , neocrtex expansion (related to vision)
Primate limbs
Primates orginiate in an aborial environment
Primates are characterised by FLAT nails
What are the four forms of locomotion in primates?
Terrestrial quadrapedalism, vertical clinginng and leapinging, brachiation (hanging from hind limb), and bipedalism
Primate vision
Allows us to see 3D objects (unlike dogs)
Have large field of vision (overlapping binoccular and peripheral)
Neocortex expansion
Related to vision and this part expanded
What is a hominin?
Members of the tribe ‘hominini’
Dental features, bipedal locomotion, large brain size and tool making behaviour (mosaic evolution-developed at different times and rates)
Modern Homo Sapiens (humans) characteristics for locomotion:
Bipedal: shortened pelvis;larger body and legs; fingers and toes not as long
Early hominin characteristics for locomotion:
Bipedal: shortened pelvis;differences from later hominins, smaller body and long arms relative to legs; long fingers and toes; capable of CLIMBING
Generalised Apes (hominoids) for locomotion:
Quadrapedal: Long pelvis, capable of considerable arm swinging, suspensory locomotion
Modern Homo Sapiens (humans) characteristics (for brain):
Greatrly increases brain size -highly encephalised
Early hominin characteristics for brain:
Larger than miocene (ape like) forms, moderatley encephelised -prior to 6 mya no more encephalized than chimpanzees
Miocene, gneeralised ape (hominoid) characteristics for brain:
SMALL compared to hominins, large compared to other primates; a fair degree of encephalization
Modern homo sapiens features for dentition:
Small incisors; canines further reduced; molar tooth enamel caps thick
Early hominin dentition features:
Moderatley large incisors; canines somewhat reduced; molar tooth enamel caps very thick (hard and abrasive type of diet)
Miocene generalized ape (hominoid) dentition features:
Large front teeth; molar teeth variable, depending on species; some have thin enamel caps, others thick enamel caps (gorilla thin enamel layer because they eat soft food-leaves)
What are the 4 main hominin groups?
Ardipithecus group, Australopithecus group, Paranthropus group, Homo group
When in time did the Ardipithecus group originate?
Around 6mya but debate as to whether they are hominins or not
When in time did the Australopithecus originate?
Emerged around 4 mya (dissappeared around 2mya)
When in time did the Paranthropus group originate?
Around 3 mya (more or less same time as australopithecus) More robust survived until 1 mya
When in time did the homo group emerge (us)
2.5 mya
Homo Habillus
First stone tools around 2.5 mya
Ardipithecus anatomy:
curved fingers, short and broad ilium, hightly diverged big toe, ape like dentition, similar to chimpanzee (long forearm), relatively SMALL cranial capacity
Australopithecus anatomy:
‘Lucy’, very short (1.1m) short lower limbs but long upper limbs, bipedal AND aborial, big toe is aligned with other toes of foot (more human like)
Paranthopus anatomy:
More robust features; face flatter, sagittal crest for attachment of mastication muscles, small cranial capacity (but bigger than chimpanzee), prominent brow ridge, large zygomatic arch
Homo group phase 1: 2.4 mya (early homo)
900 cm3 (large expansion), less projected face (prognathous), relativley flat forehead and prominent brow region
Hominin original definition:
Bipedal
Second phase of evolution (asian homo) (1.8mya)
Found homo outside Africa; in Asia (Indonesia) larger body. Also first one to be given name homo erectus
Homo Errectus: Indonesia
940cm3 capacity (larger than Australopithecus), femur looked almost identical to modern humans, still prominent brow ridge (1mya)
Phase 3: Archaic Homo (600 thousand y.a - 130 thousand y.a)
Different species found in Europe, Africa and Asia
Cranial capacity 12800 cm3 (larger and getting closer to size of modern humans), also still prominent brow ridge
- Neanderthals also found `
Neanderthals
225-28kya
- Projecting midface,
- Very large cranial capacity (1500cm3)
- No retromolar space
- Doesn’t have a chin
Multiregional hypothesis
Was one homo from Africa that moved out (1-2mya) and started to conquer all the other continents then evolved to modern species (e.g. asian homoerectus gave rise to asian people and african homoerectus gave rise to african people)
- Suggests interbreeding to maintain the same species
- This model was ABANDONED
Out of Africa Hypothesis:
2mya a homoerrectus that moved out of Africa and started to conquer europe and Asia. Then there was another migration out of Africa 100000 years ago that REPLACED the other hominins living in Asia and Europe and Austrlalasia
Modern Humans phase:
All came from Africa
- Extremely large cranial capacity (1450cm3)
- Still prominent brow ridge
- Still modern but prreserving archaic features
- large posterior teeth and robust face
- Has a chin
Modern Face
25-30 kya
Which nerve branches from the femoral nerve?
The saphenous nerve
Which two nerves branch from the sciatic nerve?
The common fibula nerve and tibial nerve
Compartments of uper limb
Anterior and posterior compartments
What movement is the anterior compartment related to in upper limbs?
Flexion
What movement is the posterior compartment related to in upper limbs?
Extension
Pectoralis Major Action
The most powerful adductor of the arm (brings the arm closer into body)
Deltoid Action
Major ABductor of the arm (anterior part flexes the arm and posterior part assists latisumus dorsi in EXTENDING the arm)
What is the shoulder (pectoral girdle)composed of?
Clavicle and Scapula
What is the arm (brachium)composed of?
Humerus
What is the forearm (antebrachium) composed of?
The radius (thicker one-radius rotates over the ulna in pronation) and the ulna
What is the hand composed of?
The carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges (outer extremities-fingers)
Pectoral girdle joints and function:
- Consists of clavicle and scapula(flatbone)
- Has a lateral acromioclavicular joint and a medial sternoclavicular joint
- Provides support and articulation for the humerus and and anchors variety of muscles
- Provides platform for movement of the upper limbs
Which is the only bone of the upper limb that is connected with the axial skeleton?
The clavicle through the sternoclavicular joint
Which process does the scapula contain?
The acromion
What is the PROXIMAL end of the clavicle called from inferior view?
Sternal facet (seen from inferior view)- also articulates with the sternum
What is the DISTAL end of the clavicle called from an inferior view?
Acromial facet which articulates with the acromion of the scapula (acromioclavicular joint)
Sternoclavicular joint more details:
Contains many ligaments to support the articulation
- Anterior sternoclaviuclar ligament: Anterior side and a ligament that connects sternum with clavicle
- Interclavicular ligament: Ligament that connects the two clavicles
- Costalclavicular ligament: Ligament that connnects the clavicle with costal bone/rib
What is the cavity in the scapula that articualtes with the humerus called?
Glenoid cavity
Which borders can be seen from the anterior view of scapula?
The superior border (on top), the medial border (fairly linear), and the lateral border (on an angle)
The Humerus:
- the head of the humerus always faces medially
What does the head (ball part) of the humerus articulate with?
The glenoid cavity of scapula
What are the two bumps on the humerus called?
The greater tuburcle (more laterally) and lesser placed more anteriorly
Distal side of humerus:
Humerus articulates with radius and ulna through the condyle
What does the condyle of humerus consist of?
Trochlea and Capitulum
Which part of the condyle articulates with the ulna?
Trochlea
Which part of the condyle articulates with the radius?
Capitulum
Glenohumeral joint properties and stabilisers:
Most mobile joint in boy;rotates 360 degrees BUT one of the least stable joints in the body
- Bursae which help to prevent friction to stabilise
- Muscles help to stabilise (majority of stabilisation)
Sternoclavicular joint type and movements:
Saddle joint: - ABduction &ADDUCTION aswell as FLEXION and EXTENSION
- Occur around two axes at right angles to each other in two planes; coronal and sagittal
Circumduction can also occur
Acromioclavicular joint type and movements:
Plane joint:Gliding or sliding movements in plane of articular surfaces
Glenohumeral joint type and movements:
Ball and Socket: Elevation & Depression(lowering movement and less degree of movement than elevation), and Protraction (forward movement) and retraction (backward movement), medial &lateral rotation, Flexion & extension, abduction &adduction, and circumduction
Radius appearance:
has more of a head which articulates with the capitulum of humerus
- On distal side, radius looks larger than ulna
Which joints make up the elbow joint?
Humeroulna and humeroradial joints
Elbow joint movements:
Flexion & exension, supuination & pronation
Elbow joint movements:
Flexion & exension, supuination & pronation
Which bone of the forearm does NOT directly articulate with the carpal bones?
The ulna (gap is fibrous connective tissue)
How are the metacarpal bones numbered?
From 1-5 starting from the thumb side (5 means little finger)
How many phalanges does the thumb have?
- Also phalanges have proximal middle and distal
Main muscles of the shoulder:
Pectoralis major, Deltoid, Latissimus dorsi
What s the function of the rhomboid muscle? (major and minor)
Retracts the shoulder (brings it back)
What is the function of serratus anterior muscle?
Opposing movement of the rhomboid muscle so it protracts the shoulder (brings it forward)
What is the main action of the pectoralis major?
Major and most powerful adductor of the arm (bringing the arm closer to the body)
- Medial rotator of the arm in combination with the latissimus dorsi
What is the main action of the deltoid?
The major ABductor of the arm (taking away arm from body)
- anterior part assists pectoralis major in flexing the arm
- posterior part assists latissimus dorsi in extending the arm
What is the major action of the Latissimus dorsi?
Extending the shoudler joint and medially rotates the humerus
- In combination with the pectoralis major it is a powerful adductor
What is the rotator cuff?
Group of four msucles and their tendons that surround the head of the humerus
- It supports and strengthens the joint capsule throughout wide range of motion (important for throwing-baseball and cricket)
Which major muscles are in the anterior (flexor) compartment of the arm?
Brachialis, BICEPS, and Coracobrachiallis
Which major muscle is part of the posterior compartment of the arm?
The triceps
What are extrinsic muscles for the hand for?
Related to strength. Proximal attachment is farther away from hand.
What are the intrinsic muscles of hand?
Proximal and distal attahcments within the hand. Finer movements
Extensor digitorium (posterior compartment):
Related to the middle fingers
Extensor carpi radialis brevis:
Muscle related to extension on the radial( thumb )side
Extensor carpi ulnaris
On medial side
Extensor digiti minimi
Extension of the little finger
Intrinsic muscles of the hand: movement of thumb
Pollicis muscles. e.g. adductor pollicis (adductor of the thumb)
Intrinsic muscles of the hand: movement of the little finger
Digiti Minimi muslces
Intrinsic muscles of the hand: movement of the other fingers
Interosseous muscles
What are the nerves of the upper limb?
From the brachial plexus, there is the ulnar nerve, the median nerve(innervation of middle fingers), and radial nerve
What are the arteries of the upper limb?
Brachial artery. This then splits into the radial artery (radial side) and ulnal artery (ulnar side)
What are the veins of the upper limb?
All of the branches connect through the median cubital vein which runs OBLIQUELY.
On medial side is Basilic vein and on lateral side is Cephalic vein
Regions of the lower limb:
- Gluteal region (pelvic girdle)- Contains coxal bone
- Femoral region -contains femur
- Knee region-contains patella
- Leg region- contains fibia and tibula
- Foot region- contains tarsus, metatarsus, phalanges
Pelvic girdle:
Consists of three bones fusing together; ilium (largest and forms superior part), ischium (inferoposteriorly), and pubis (placed anteriorly)
Where do the pubic bones fuse together?
Pubic symphysis
What do the three hip bones articulate to the axial skeleton (sacrum) by?
The sacroiliac joint (iliac-left side, articulates to sacrum)
What does the acetabulum do?
It is a cavity (sulcut) which articulates with the head of the femur
What is the obturator foramen?
Covered by fibrious connective tissues and it is a hole (foramen) -nerve and blood vessels pass through
The femur:
Very large head (placed medially) and neck, contains greater (more laterally palced and larger) and lesser trochanter(more medially) ,
- Lateral and medial eicondyles: serve as attachments for the tendons and muscle
Hip joint stabilisers:
not as mobile as glenohumeral joint, must be stable to transfer weight to femur
- Ischiofmeoral ligament
- Ileofemoral ligament
- Pubofemoral ligament
- Obturator membrane seals the foramen
Ischiofmeoral ligament
conencts the femur with the ischium
Ileofemoral ligament
connects the femur with the ilium
Pubofemoral ligament
connects the pubis with the femur
Range of movement on the HIP joint:
Flexion & Extension, Abduction & adduction, Lateral & medial rotation
Bones of distal leg: tibia and fibula
Opposite with elbow joints; femur ONLY ARTICULATES WITH TIBIA at the knee joint
- interosseous membrane fills in gap between tibia and fibula
Which bone of distal leg help with body weight transmission?
TIBIA
Joints of the tibua and fibula:
Proximal tibiofibular joint and distal tibiofibular joint
What articualtes with the tarsal bone?
Lateral malleolus
Knee joint:
Two types of articulations in knee joint: one within the femur and tibia (lateral and medial condyles) and one between the femur and patella articulation surface
- menisci helps with the cushioning
- Cruciate (crossing)
- Anterior cruciate ligament (proximal attachment)
Knee Joint stabilisers:
fibular collateral ligament (stabilises the lateral side of knee joint)
- tibial collateral ligament (medial side)
- Plopliteal ligament crosses obliquely and helps stabilising joint
Knee Joint movements:
Extension & flexion , lateral and medial rotation
The bones of the foot: Tarsal bones
From plantar view (bottom):
Talus, Calcaneus, Navicular, Cuboid, lateral cuneiform, middle cuneiform, medial cuneiform(wedge)
Talus bone
Articulates with tibia, and then in the foot articualtes with the navicular
Navicular bone
Has a boat shape
Calcaneus
Heel bone (largest bone of tarsal area)
Cuneiform tarsal bones
Cuneiform means wedge so they are like a wedge (medial middle, lateral)
Talus * properties:
Second largest tarsal bone, within the calcaneus inferiorly and tibia superiorly.
- No muscle attachments of the bone.
- Trochlea and lateral process of talus articulate with the fibula proximally
- Transmits weight inferiorly with the calcaneus (distal)
Calcaneus
Largest tarsal bone
- Contains calcaneal tuberosity (posterior side)- for attachment of tendon of the calf (calcaneous tendons/achillies tendons)
Joints of the foot:
Midtarsal joints- divides the foot from hind-food and mid foot
Tarso-metatarsal joints divides the mid-foot with the forefoot
How are toes numbered?
From 1-5 starting from great (big) toe - big toe only has proximal and distal attachements- rest have proximal middle and distal
Angle joints:
have ligaments that help to protect the ankle and the foot
Movements at ankle joints;
Dorsiflexion and plantarflexion, Inversion & eversion (not actually at ankle joint)
Movements at pharangeal joints:
Abduction and adduction, flexion and extension (don’t have to remember)
How do the lower limbs function in relaxed standing?
erector spinae muscles help to erect and stabilise
What are the two main phases when walking and what do they mean?
- Stance phase - lower limbs are touching the ground
2. Swing phase- Lower limb is off trhe ground
What are the three main arches of the foot related to bipedal locomotion and how do they help locomotion?
Medial longitudinal arch
Lateral longitudinal arch
Transverse arch
These help to support foot and absorb shock during walking, running and jumping
Also maintain and position the different bones of the foot
What is the medial longitudinal arch composed of?
flat foot without this
Calcaneus, Talus, navicular, three cuniform bones, first three metacarpal bones, sesamoid bone
What is the transverse arch formed by?
Bases of metatarsal bones, medial, intermediate and lateral cuniform bones, cuboid
Pes Planus
Flat foot (fallen of loniitudinal arches)
Pes cavus
Medial longitudinal arch is too high
What are the compartments of the lower limbs?
Posterior, Anteiror, and Medial
What is the anterior compartment of thigh related to in terms of movement?
Extension (opposite of arms)
What is the posterior compartment of thigh related to in terms of movement?
Flexion (opposite of arms)
What location is the medial compartment of lower limbs?
Thigh
What location is the lateral compartment of lower limbs?
Leg
Muscles of the hip: Gluteus Maximus
Largest and most superficial gluteal muscle .
Proximal attachment: Sacrum then the ilium
Distal attachment: Femur
Major and MOST IMPORTANT EXTENSOR and LATERAL ROTATOR of the HIP
Muscles of the hip: Ilopsoas muscle
Two parts to the muscle:
Ilacus(proximal attachment is on the ilium) and psoas (proximal attachment starts at lumbar vertebra)(part of axio)
They join (converge) onto one tendon and attach to femur
- MOST IMPORTANT FLEXOR OF THE HIP
Muscles of the hip: Lateral rotators
- Group of 6 muscles
- Major lateral rotator of the thigh
Muscles of the hip: Gluteus medium and minimus
Most important ABductors and medial rotators of the thigh
-
Muscles of the hip: Adductor group
- Group of 5 muscles
-
Thigh compartments:
Anterior and medial
Quadriceps femoris action (anterior medial compartment):
Major extension at the knee joint
Sartorius muscle in thigh (anterior medial compartment):
Runs obliquely and is the LONGEST muscle in the body
- not a very powerful muscles
- flexion at knee joint
- adduction, flexion and lateral rotation at hip joint
Posterior comapartment of thigh muscles:
Hamstring muscles; biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus
- Flexion at knee joint; extension and lateral rotation at hip joint
Extrinsic muscles of the foot: Tibialis anterior major actions
Inversion of the foot; dorsiflexion at ankle joint
Extrinsic muscles of the foot: Extensor Digitorium Longus, Extensor Hallicus Longus
Major actions are extension of toes; dorsiflexion at ankle joint
Extrinsic muscles of the foot: Lateral compartment:
Fibularis longus and fibularis brevis
- Major action is eversion of the foot and plantar flexion at ankle joint
Extrinsic muscles of the foot: Posterior Compartment (superficial and deep): Superficial
Gastrocnemius, soleus and plantaris
major action is PLANTAR FLEXION
Extrinsic muscles of the foot: Posterior Compartment (superficial and deep): Deep
Flexor digitorium longus (flexion of toes), tibialis posterior (inversion of foot) , flexor hallucis longus (flexes big toe)
major action is flexion of the toes
What are the nerves of the lower extremity anteriorly?
Major nerve of thigh is femoral nerve, then saphenous nerve (medial side) branches off
What are the nerves of posterior lower extremity?
Major nerve is sciatic nerve which branches off into common fibula nerve and tibial nerve
What are the arteries of the lower extremity anterior view?
Femoral artery* is major artery, then an anterior tibial artery*, and a dorsalis pedis artery through foot
What are the arteries of the lower extremity posterior view?
Fibular artery*
What are the deep veins of the lower extremity?
The anterior tibial which crosses over the knee joint and forms part of the femoral vein (next to artery)
What are the superficial veins of the lower extremity?
Small saphenous (lateral) and great saphenous (medial and larger and near the knee cap)
Pulmonary trunk
continuation of the right ventricle and divides into right and left pulmonary arteries. The pulmonary trunk and arteries bring low oxygenated blood to lungs for oxygenation
What is the heart drained by?
Veins that empty into the coronary sinus and partly by small veins that empty into the right artrium
What is the main vein of the heart?
Coronary sinus
Receives great cardiac vein at its left and the middle cardiac and small cardiac vein at its right end
Which arteries branch off from the left coronary artery?
The circumflex branch (found mostly on posterior side) and the left marginal artery (found on anterior side)
Which arteries branch from the right coronary artery?
The right marginal artery and posterior intraventricular artery
Which structures does the right coronary artery typically supply?
right atrium, most of the right ventricle, part of the left ventricle (diaphragmatic surface), part of the IV septum (posterior third), SA node (sinoatrial - in 60% of people) and AV node (in 80 % people)
Which structures does the left coronary artery supply?
Left atrium, most of left ventricle, part of right ventricle, most of the IVS (intact ventricular septum), SA node
How many secondary bronchi does the left bronchial tree have?
2 secondary bronchi
How many secondary bronchi does the right bronchial tree have?
3 secondaary bronchi
Why is the bronchus the most posterior structure entering the lungs?
Because the heart is anterior to everything (infront)
Why do foreign objects inhaled typically end up in right primary bronchus?
Because it runs more vertically than the left
What are the anatomical features of left lung?
Two lobes, Cardiac notch (impression from heart)
What are the anatomical features of right lung?
3 lobes with horizontal fissure and oblique fissure, upper middle and lower lobes
What is the hilum?
Area of the lung where blood vessels are entering and leaving the lung and the primary bronchi are entering
Potential space of pleura?
Frictionless environemnt surrounding lungs and potential space (serous fluid); can collect fluid if there is infection and starts pushing into lung which can result in collapse in lung,
Role of pleurae in respiration?
PLeural cavity formed fromm the visceral and parietal pleurae. This contains serous pleural fluid which lubricates pleural surfaces and allows layers of pleura to slide smoothly over each other during respiration. The surface tension of pleural fluid allows lung to keep in contact with thoracic wall so when inhaling, lung expands and fills with air at the same time as thorax whislt sliding is occuring.
What does each pulmonary artery divide into?
Secondary lobar arteries
Where is the artery located in relation to the corresponding bronchus?
On the anterior aspect of the posterior bronchus
What do the bronchial arteries supply?
The root of the lungs (supplying blood for nutrition), supporting tissues of the lungs and the visceral pleura
Which arteries arise from the thoracic aorta?
Left bronchial arteries
Which side of the heart is at a lower pressure and why?
The right side of the heart because it only needs to go to the lungs
Why is the left side of the heart much thicker?
Left side has to be very high pressure to pump to other parts of the body much harder
Role of coronary sinus:
De-oxygenated blood is soaked up into the coronary sinus ( like a sponge) and is drained into the right atria
Blood supply of the heart setissue in predicting blockage:
Death of heart tissue and how extensive it is depends on where in the blockage it is
- Heart tissue does not regenerate
- can predict where it might die based on arteries
What do capillaries do?
Allow for gas exchange of deoxygenated for oxygenated blood at location of viscera or internal organs
Does artery vein capillary have anything to do with oxygen level?
NOOOO!!!
What is the tunica media?
Middle layer of all arteries and veins
- it is the MUSCULAR layer and is what distinguishes arteries and veins (i.e. if thinner tunica media then must be vein)
Where are elastic fibres located in relation to circulation?
Arteries
What is the tunica intima?
Endothelium. Helps prevent sticking of RBCs
Anastomosis
Is like a bypass to a structure that is critical
e. g. bending elbow needs anastomosis (at any joint)
- also in gut there are a lot of anastomoses
Heart bypass surgery:
Create an anastomosis
What are two examples where we DON’T have Low Oxygen in Veins???
PULMONARY VEINS (breinginn oxygenated blood from lungs to heart) AND UMBILICAL VEIN (bringing high oxygenated blood into foetus)
