WEEK 2: Lecture 2a+b - Caruso et al. - Van Anders - Vanwesenbeeck - Buss & Schmitt

Question 1

L2a: Question: What determines chromosomal sex in humans?

Answer 1

Answer: Chromosomal sex is determined by the presence of XX chromosomes for females and XY chromosomes for males.

Question 2

L2a: Question: What are the developmental outcomes of bipotential gonads?

Answer 2

Answer: Depending on the presence of X or Y chromosomes, bipotential gonads develop into ovaries or testes. In cases of intersex, ovotestes may form.

Question 3

L2a: Question: How do steroid hormones influence human development?

Answer 3

Answer: Steroid hormones produced by gonads in utero shape brain structure and body morphology. They have organizational effects during development and activational effects during puberty.

Question 4

L2a: Question: What are some examples of intersex conditions?

Answer 4

Answer: Examples include hypospadias, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and Turner syndrome, where genetic or hormonal factors lead to ambiguous genitalia or incomplete development.

Question 5

L2a: Question: What role do hormones play in sexual behavior?

Answer 5

Answer: Hormones like testosterone and estradiol influence sexual desire and arousal. Testosterone is critical for male arousal, while estradiol is essential for sexual behavior in non-human females.

Question 6

L2a: Question: What are common myths about testosterone?

Answer 6

Answer: Testosterone does not solely determine sexual behavior or aggression; its effects are more nuanced. Contrary to myth, abstaining from masturbation does not increase testosterone levels.

Question 7

L2b: Question: What are the definitions of sex and gender according to sociocultural perspectives?

Answer 7

Answer: Sex refers to biological characteristics such as chromosomes and genitalia, while gender encompasses social-cultural definitions of masculinity, femininity, and non-binary identities.

Question 8

L2b: Question: How prevalent are intersex traits in the population, and why are intersex individuals often misunderstood?

Answer 8

Answer: Intersex traits affect approximately 1.7% of the population, similar to the prevalence of red hair. Misunderstanding persists due to limited awareness that sex characteristics include chromosomes, hormones, and internal organs beyond genitalia.

Question 9

L2b: Question: According to evolutionary psychology, what factors contribute to sex differences in sexual behavior?

Answer 9

Answer: Evolutionary psychology attributes sex differences in sexual behavior to:
- genetic variation:everyone differs, not everyone has the same survival rate
- natural selection: survival of the fittest
- Succesful reproduction: passing on strong genes
influenced by parental investment theory.

Question 10

L2b: Question: What are some key components of social constructivist perspectives on sexual behavior?

Answer 10

Answer: Social constructivist perspectives emphasize the interaction between biological and social factors in shaping sexual behavior. They include socialization theories, objectification theory, and sexual script theory.

Question 11

L2b: Question: What is the sexual double standard, and how does it impact perceptions of heterosexual men and women?

Answer 11

Answer: The sexual double standard involves judging heterosexual men and women differently for the same sexual behavior, reinforcing traditional gender norms and stereotypes.

Question 12

L2b: Question: Why is sensitivity to sex differences important despite criticisms of focusing on gender differences?

Answer 12

Answer: Sensitivity to sex differences is crucial for research, intervention, and political reasons. However, it’s important to avoid drawbacks such as polarization and stereotyping, and to recognize the complexity and fluidity of gender and sexuality.

Question 13

Caruso: Question: What was the primary aim of the study by Caruso et al. (2014)?

Answer 13

Answer: To investigate changes in female sexuality across the week and over the menstrual cycle, and to explore hormonal influences.

Question 14

Caruso: Question: Which phases of the menstrual cycle were studied by Caruso et al. (2014), and what are their characteristics?

Answer 14

Answer: The phases studied were the follicular (beginning with menstruation), periovular (around ovulation), and luteal (after ovulation until menstruation begins) phases.

Question 15

Caruso: Question: How did sexual activity vary among women with partners throughout the week according to Caruso et al. (2014)?

Answer 15

Answer: Sexual activity gradually increased during the week, peaking on Saturday, indicating possible weekend influence (P < 0.001 vs. Sunday–Friday).

Question 16

Caruso: Question: What difference in sexual activity was noted between women with partners and singles during the periovular phase?

Answer 16

Answer: Women without a partner showed significantly increased sexual activity during the periovular phase (P < 0.001), whereas those with partners had lower activity (P < 0.001).

Question 17

Caruso: Question: According to Caruso et al. (2014), what was observed about sexual activity in women with partners during the menstrual cycle?

Answer 17

Answer: Women with partners showed increased activity from the follicular to periovular phases (P < 0.05), followed by a decrease in the luteal phase (P < 0.001), and another increase during menses (P < 0.05).

Question 18

Caruso: Question: What did the study find about the correlation between sexual activity and steroid levels (hormones) during the menstrual cycle?

Answer 18

Answer: There was a higher correlation in women without partners, especially during the periovular phase, suggesting hormonal influences might be stronger in this group (P < 0.001).

Question 19

Caruso: Question: What conclusion did Caruso et al. (2014) draw regarding the influence of ovarian steroids on female sexual activity?

Answer 19

Answer: Ovarian steroids increase the likelihood of sexual activity, particularly when fertile, more noticeably in singles than in women with partners.

Question 20

Caruso: Question: What did the study by Caruso et al. (2014) indicate about the impact of social variables on female sexual behavior?

Answer 20

Answer: Social variables may influence the timing and type of sexual expression, but human female sexual behavior shows flexibility across the week and menstrual cycle, influenced by both hormonal and nonhormonal factors.

Question 21

Van Anders: Question: According to van Anders (2012), what biological variable has been highlighted as potentially accounting for sex differences and within-sex variation in sexual desire?

Answer 21

Answer: Testosterone (T).

Question 22

Van Anders: Question: In the study by van Anders (2012), how did cortisol (C) influence the relationship between testosterone (T) and dyadic sexual desire in women?

Answer 22

Answer: High cortisol levels moderated a negative correlation between testosterone (T) and dyadic sexual desire in women.

Question 23

Van Anders: Question: What is solitary sexual desire theorized to represent in terms of desire measurement?

Answer 23

Answer: Solitary sexual desire is theorized to be a ‘truer’ measure of desire, less influenced by social and relational contexts.

Question 24

Van Anders: Question: How did testosterone (T) relate to solitary sexual desire in women according to van Anders (2012)?

Answer 24

Answer: Testosterone (T) was positively linked to solitary sexual desire in women.

Question 25

Van Anders: Question: According to van Anders (2012), what was found to be the significant predictor of gender/sex differences in sexual desire, rather than testosterone (T)?

Answer 25

Answer: Masturbation was found to be the significant predictor of gender/sex differences in sexual desire, not testosterone (T).

Question 26

Van Anders: Question: How did van Anders (2012) challenge traditional assumptions regarding testosterone (T) and sexual desire in men?

Answer 26

Answer: The study showed that testosterone (T) and sexual desire were not linked in healthy men, challenging assumptions of its importance in male sexuality.

Question 27

Van Anders: Question: Why did van Anders (2012) propose that testosterone (T) might be positively linked to solitary desire but negatively linked to dyadic desire in women?

Answer 27

Answer: Solitary desire may reflect a desire for pleasure, whereas dyadic desire may involve additional factors such as relational contact, feeling valued, power, or intimacy.

Question 28

Van Anders: Question: What did the findings of van Anders (2012) suggest about the relationship between testosterone (T) and sexual desire across genders?

Answer 28

Answer: Testosterone (T) was not correlated with sexual desire in healthy men, and the association with desire in women was moderated by psychosocial variables rather than being a direct hormonal effect.

Question 29

Vanwesenbeeck: Q: What is the relationship between gender and sexuality according to Vanwesenbeeck (2009)?

Answer 29

A: Gender is central to sexuality and vice versa, with heterosexuality serving as a key site where these two intersect.

Question 30

Vanwesenbeeck: Q: How does Vanwesenbeeck define “gender” versus “sex”?

Answer 30

A: “Sex” refers to biological characteristics, while “gender” encompasses social and cultural norms about masculinity and femininity.

Question 31

Vanwesenbeeck: Q: According to the article, what are some criticisms regarding the emphasis on gender/sex differences in sex research?

Answer 31

A: Critics argue that this emphasis can lead to polarization, stereotyping, and the neglect of within-group diversity.

Question 32

Vanwesenbeeck: Q: What is the concept of “objectification theory” as discussed by Vanwesenbeeck (2009)?

Answer 32

A: Objectification theory posits that societal objectification of the body, especially of women, leads to self-objectification and affects sexual satisfaction.

Question 33

Vanwesenbeeck: Q: How does Vanwesenbeeck describe the plasticity versus rigidity of sexual behavior?

Answer 33

A: Women exhibit more variability in sexual behavior due to socio-cultural factors, while men tend to show more consistency, which is termed sexual rigidity.

Question 34

Vanwesenbeeck: Q: What are some confounding factors that Vanwesenbeeck suggests should be considered in sex research?

Answer 34

A: Factors include societal norms like the double standard, demographic aspects, gender identity, and personality traits such as attachment styles.

Question 35

Vanwesenbeeck: Q: How does Vanwesenbeeck argue for a nuanced treatment of gender in sex research?

Answer 35

A: By highlighting the complexities of gender and sexuality as dynamic social processes influenced by multiple factors, including societal norms and individual differences.

Question 36

Vanwesennbeeck: Q: What perspective does Vanwesenbeeck offer on the interaction between gender and sexual behavior?

Answer 36

A: Gendered sexuality is viewed as a process enacted in specific contexts, influenced by situational factors, partner dynamics, and individual beliefs about gender norms.

Question 37

B&S: Question: What disciplines does evolutionary psychology draw insights from?

Answer 37

Answer: Evolutionary psychology draws insights from modern evolutionary theory, biology, cognitive psychology, anthropology, economics, computer science, and paleoarchaeology.

Question 38

B&S: Question: According to evolutionary psychology, what is the role of evolved psychological mechanisms in human behavior?

Answer 38

Answer: Evolved psychological mechanisms process information from internal and external inputs to produce manifest behavior, adapted to solve recurrent adaptive problems.
So: Our brains use information from inside and outside our bodies to create behaviors that help solve common problems we’ve faced over time.

Question 39

B&S: Question: How does evolutionary psychology view gender differences and similarities?

Answer 39

Evolutionary psychology says that men and women are different in areas where they had different challenges in the past, but they are similar in areas where they faced the same challenges.

Question 40

B&S: Question: According to Sexual Strategies Theory (SST), what are some gender differences in mating strategies?

Answer 40

Answer: Men, more than women, exhibit preferences for short-term mating strategies, such as desiring a larger number of sex partners and being willing to engage in sexual encounters sooner after meeting someone.

Question 41

B&S: Question: What does evolutionary psychology propose about standards of beauty?

Answer 41

Beauty standards are not random but are based on signs of youth, health, and fertility, which indicate good chances of having healthy children.

Question 42

B&S: Question: How does evolutionary psychology explain men’s preference for risk-taking in short-term mating?

Answer 42

Answer: Risk-taking behaviors in men are seen as signals of sexual exploitability or accessibility in short-term mating contexts, consistent with evolutionary principles of mating strategies.

Question 43

B&S: Question: What are the key causes of sexual coercion according to evolutionary psychology?

Answer 43

Sexual coercion might happen because humans evolved traits specifically for rape or because of other traits like wanting many sexual partners or wanting to be dominant.

Question 44

B&S: Question: How does evolutionary psychology view manifest behavior versus underlying psychological adaptations?

Answer 44

Evolutionary psychologists say that our behaviors can change based on the situation, but the basic psychological traits that drive those behaviors stay the same and are triggered by different social and cultural settings.

Question 45

L2a: Do activities change hormones?

Answer 45

Yes, the activities we do changes our hormones. E.g. going to the gym creates more testosterone. Hormones only increase the likelihood of behavior occuring. It doesn’t make you behave in a certain way. There is a reciprocal relationship between hormones, behavior, and environmental/social world.

Question 46

Caruso: Hormones like …, …, and … have a low correlation with arousal, but higher … levels are linked to increased arousal in women.

Answer 46

1: estradiol
2: progesterone
3: testosterone
4: testosterone

Question 47

Caruso: Which group report higher arousal but lower orgasm?

Answer 47

Partnered women.

Question 48

Van Anders: Explain the correlation between solitary and dyadic desire.

Answer 48

This is positively correlated, what means that people who have strong sexual desires alone also tend to have strong sexual desires with a partner, and this is true for both men and women.

Question 49

Van Anders: Does testosterone has an impact on desire in women?

Answer 49

Not alone, effects of testosterone on desires in women are influenced by their stress an cortisol levels.

Question 50

Van Anders: In women, testosterone was … correlated with dyadic desire, but … with solitary desire with … moderating.

Answer 50

1: negatively
2: positively
3: stress

Question 51

L2b: What is the (feminist) gender similarity hypothesis?

Answer 51

Men and women are similar on most, but not all psychological variables. Differences: masturbation frequency, watching porn, having more sex partners, attitudes towards casual sex.

Question 52

L2b: What does the parental investment theory states?

Answer 52

Women are heavy investors: high costs by definition make large investments in reproduction (pregnancy, breastfeeding). They can have a limited number of children. Men as low investors. They have low costs, because there are no major investments in reproduction and there is no limit in passing on their genetic material.

Question 53

L2b: What are gender normative scripts and schemas?

Answer 53

We interpret the same behavior differently depending on who shows the behavior (m/w). SDS?

Question 54

Vanwesenbeeck: Gender and sexuality are … and …. Understanding ones gender can provide insights into their sexuality and vice versa.

Answer 54

1: inherently interdependent
2: mutually informing

Question 55

Vanwesenbeeck: What is the metaphor about land and sea?

Answer 55

Gender is land (fixed) and sexuality is sea (fluid).

Question 56

B&S: What are the core promises from evolutionary psychology?

Answer 56

1. Behavior comes from how our minds work together with what’s happening around us: Our actions are influenced by how our minds are built and how we respond to things outside and inside ourselves.
2. Evolution is the main reason for how our minds work: Our minds have evolved over time, mostly because certain traits helped our ancestors survive and reproduce.
3. Our minds have specific tools for solving common problems: We have mental tools that have developed over time to solve problems that keep coming up.
4. Our mental tools are shaped by the environment: Our minds are designed to pick up information from the world around us and use it to guide our behavior.
5. Human minds have lots of specialized tools: We have many different mental tools that work together to help us solve different problems and adapt to different situations.

Question 57

B&S: What are the key implications of evolutionary theory?

Answer 57

1. Our behavior isn’t just because of our genes; what’s around us matters too: It’s not just our DNA that determines how we behave; the things in our environment also play a big role.
2. There’s a difference between why we act and what we do: The reasons behind our actions are different from the actions themselves. Our behavior is influenced by deeper psychological processes as well as what we actually do.
3. Culture and society shape how we behave: Our behavior isn’t just about what’s in our heads; it’s also heavily influenced by the societies and cultures we live in.
4. We’re able to change how we behave because of our history: Our behavior isn’t set in stone; we can adapt and change because we have evolved to be able to do so.