Ways of thinking

Question 1

Falsifiable->

• String theory ->
  what it is and is it falsifiable?
• Descriptive studies and qualitative studies have difficulties with providing…

Instead, these studies try and describe….

Answer 1

Falsifiable-> The ability to prove a conjecture or and idea wrong through the process of inquiry or experimentation.

• String theory -> the idea / theory that explains the fundamental nature of the universe by describing tiny strings 10-30 in size. Sadly, string theory does not
  produce testable hypothesis and so is not falsifiable. We have no means of measuring anything that small. As such is should be the string theory postulate.
• Descriptive studies and qualitative studies have difficulties with providing Falsifiability.

Instead, these studies try and describe the world as we encounter or perceive it and record the results for comparison or further analysis.

Question 2

• Thinking:
• Critical Thinking:

Your thinking is limited by:

Answer 2

• Thinking: A complex act, composed of knowledge,
  and skills, by which the individual can relate to and
  shape the environment more effectively than with
  intuition ( reaction ) alone.
• Critical Thinking: Is an active and systematic attempt
  to understand and evaluate arguments and
  questions. (need to emphasis critique in critical)

Your thinking is limited by:
* Your experience
* Your education
* Your imagination (product of the first two)
* Your environment
* Your community

Question 3

Problems with the Web

Answer 3

many of the ideas out there are wrong, but many of us dont take the time to see if they are right or not.
Critical Thinking!!!

Question 4

Definition of reasoning:
* Reasoning is the cognitive process of
forming…. based on…..

• It involves the application of…. in order to…..

RESEARCH IN SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

• Reasoning is essential for generating and
  evaluating…
• It helps researchers to make…
• Reasoning enables scientists to….

Answer 4

Definition of reasoning:
* Reasoning is the cognitive process of forming conclusions, judgments, or inferences based on available information, facts, or premises. Explain an action provide a reason for…

• It involves the application of logic, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills to understand and interpret observations, identify patterns, and make predictions.

RESEARCH IN SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

• Reasoning is essential for generating and
  evaluating hypotheses, designing experiments, and
  interpreting results.
• It helps researchers to make sense of complex and
  uncertain information, identify connections between
  seemingly unrelated phenomena, and develop new
  theories.
• Reasoning enables scientists to communicate their
  findings clearly and persuasively, fostering
  collaboration and the advancement of knowledge

Question 5

Deductive Reasoning
what is it…
it follows formal logic—if premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

Process of Deduction
General Premises

Specific Conclusion

Example
Premise: All mammals have lungs.
Premise: A dog…
Conclusion: therefore A dog…

Answer 5

Deductive Reasoning
Starts with general premises and leads to specific conclusions.
Follows formal logic—if premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

Process of Deduction
General Premises
- Establish a general principle, theory, or rule.
- Based on established knowledge or widely accepted theories.
Specific Conclusion
- Draw conclusions logically from the premises.
- Cannot contradict the premises.

Example
Premise: All mammals have lungs.
Premise: A dog is a mammal.
Conclusion: A dog has lungs.

Question 6

Inductive Reasoning
Identifies patterns, trends, or relationships in data.

Process of Induction
Specific Observations

General Conclusion

Example
Observation 1: Every cat I have seen has whiskers.
Observation 2:
Conclusion:

Answer 6

Inductive Reasoning
Starts with specific observations and leads to general conclusions. opposite of deductive
Identifies patterns, trends, or relationships in data.

Process of Induction
Specific Observations
- Gather data through observation or experimentation.
- Data can be qualitative or quantitative.
General Conclusion
- Analyze data to find patterns or relationships.
- Form general theories, conclusions, or hypotheses.

Example
Observation 1: Every cat I have seen has whiskers.
Observation 2: My neighbor’s cat and my friend’s cat also have whiskers.
Conclusion: All cats likely have whiskers

Question 7

Advantages and Limitations

inductive

deductive

Answer 7

Inductive Reasoning

✅ Advantages
Helps discover new knowledge through observations.
Useful for forming hypotheses and theories for further research.

❌ Limitations
Risk of false generalizations due to limited observations.
Conclusions are not always certain—new data may change them.

Deductive Reasoning

✅ Advantages
Precise and logical—valid conclusions if premises are true.
Useful for testing hypotheses and making predictions.

❌ Limitations
Depends on premises—if they are wrong, conclusions are wrong.
Cannot generate new knowledge, only applies existing rules.

Question 8

Abductive Reasoning

Analogical Reasoning

Bayesian Reasoning

Answer 8

Abductive Reasoning
- Forms a hypothesis based on limited information.
- Seeks the most plausible explanation for an observation.

Analogical Reasoning
- Compares similar situations or concepts.
- Uses known information to explain or predict new situations.

Bayesian Reasoning
- Based on Bayes’ theorem—updates beliefs with new evidence.
- Helps make predictions under uncertainty.

Question 9

Deductive Reasoning
rules and constraints:
logical processes:

inductive reasoning
past experiences?

Abductive Reasoning (Possible Element)
the most plausible answer?

Answer 9

Deductive Reasoning

Rules & Constraints:
Each switch controls one bulb.
A bulb remains warm after being turned off.
The door locks after entry.

Logical Process:
If a bulb is on, it is controlled by the switch left on.
If a bulb is off but warm, it was the second switch (on briefly).
If a bulb is off and cold, it was never turned on.
The conclusion is logically certain if the premises are true.

Inductive Reasoning
Observation-Based Inference:
Past experience tells us that objects stay warm for a while after being heated.
Using this general principle, we infer the switch-bulb connections.

Abductive Reasoning (Possible Element)
“This bulb is warm → It must have been turned on earlier.”
Abduction finds the most plausible explanation based on incomplete information.