Water cycle and Water security Flashcards

Question 1

Q

What is a closed system?

Answer

A

inputs and outputs are cycled and there are no losses or gains to the system

Question 2

Q

What is a biosphere?

Answer

A

the living system (plants and animals)

Question 3

Q

What is a cryosphere?

Answer

A

the ice system (ice sheets and glaciers)

Made up of those areas of the world where water is frozen into snow and ice
non renewable

Question 4

Q

What is a residence times?

Answer

A

how long water stays in a particular store

Question 5

Q

What is fossil water?

Answer

A

water that is no longer being naturally replenished, may have been stored for a long time

ancient, deep underground groundwater made from pluvial (wetter) periods in the geological past
non-renewable

Question 6

Q

What affects the rate of evaporation?

Answer

A

sea surface temperature
surface winds
air temperature - when the air temperature is warmer, it can hold more water

Question 7

Q

How does the atmosphere store or transfer water?

Answer

A

atmosphere does not store a large quantity of water compared to the ocean, rivers and lakes
it can transport water quickly from one place to another
low-lying regions in the atmosphere with high moisture and strong winds can form atmospheric rivers, transporting water horizontally

Question 8

Q

How do clouds form?

Answer

A

formed as water vapour cools and condenses into droplets and ice crystals
clouds and water vapour acts like insulators in the atmosphere
clouds help shield the Earth from the sun and trap heat
when cloud particles grow large enough, they fall out as rain or snow
under the right conditions, areas of precipitation can grow into large storms

Question 9

Q

How do areas of precipitation form storms?

Answer

A

under the right conditions, areas of precipitation can grow into large storms
as storms grow, they transfer heat vertically into the upper atmosphere
the migration of storms helps to distribute heat between the equator and the poles - shaping wind patterns globally
how storms grow and intensify depends on atmospheric moisture, surface temperatures and wind patterns

Question 10

Q

what does the availability of water affect?

Answer

A

the type and abundance of vegetation
the primary source of food for animals and people
extreme water cycle variability, unusually dry or wet impacts humans worldwide
hazards affect human life and economic costs

Question 11

Q

How can some melt water and rainfall be stored?

Answer

A

some water can be stored/absorbed by plant roots or drains into the water table
eventually the water will evaporate to the atmosphere or return to the ocean is streams and rivers, providing a source of nutrient rich water that supports ocean life

Question 12

Q

Stores in size order

-big to small

Answer

A

Ocean -96.9% - RT 3,600
Cryosphere 1.9% - RT 15,000
Groundwater 1.1% - RT 10,000
Rivers and lakes 0.01% - RT 2wks-2yrs
soil moisture 0.01% - RT 2-50wks
atmosphere 0.001% - RT 10 days
vegetation 0.0001% - RT 1 week

Question 13

Q

Fluxes in size order

big to small
transfers

Answer

A

(10 3 km 3 per year)

Ocean evaporation - 413
Ocean precipitation - 373
Land precipitation - 113
Evapotranspiration - 73
Surface flow - 40

Question 14

Q

How does solar energy affect the water cycle?

Answer

A

It heats water and turns it from liquid to gas, rises into the atmosphere and cools and condenses to form clouds

Question 15

Q

How does gravitational potential affect the water cycle?

Answer

A

The Earths gravitational pull is converted into kinetic energy and accelerates water through the cycle
-falling as precipitation, flowing across the land and infiltrating and percolating

Question 16

Q

What is the global water budget?

Answer

A

limits available for human use

- takes into account all the water that is held in stores and flows of the global hydrological cycle

Question 17

Q

What are some key facts about the global water budget?

Answer

A

only 2.5% of budget is freshwater
the rest is in oceans
only 1% of all freshwater is easily accessible surface freshwater - nearly 70% is locked up in the glaciers and ice sheets

Question 18

Q

How is the water budget and water security changing?

Answer

A

water is considered to be a renewable resource
climate change is altering the budget, the cryosphere is melting and increasing proportion stored in ocean
many populations rely on glacier fed rivers
global population is rising and projected to rise to 10cm by 2055 - there is larger demand for water extraction

Question 19

Q

What is most water stored in the water budget?

Answer

A

most water is in the oceans - saltwater isn’t drinkable by humans unless it is desalinated which is an expensive process

Question 20

Q

What is groundwater renewability?

example of aquifer

Answer

A

groundwater reservoirs called aquifers hold the majority of accessible freshwater that can be used for drinking water
many aquifers refill naturally as water at the surface seeps into the ground after heavy rainfalls
aquifers in arid climates are not being recharged e.g. The Nubian Aquifer in Libya - The great man made river project in Libya is tapping into this resource to bring water to arid communities

Question 21

Q

What implications are there for future water security?

Answer

A

conflict over water sources (transboundary)
drought and famine
environmental refugees
price of water increases
more use of technology e.g. desalination = further carbon emissions

Question 22

Q

why does the global water budget limit water available for human use?

Answer

A

only small % available for human use (96% salt water)
2/3 freshwater locked in cryosphere (Long RT)
most of the rest of it is in soil, vegetation or deep underground (some in fossil water)
very small proportion available in rivers and lakes and accessible ground water

Question 23

Q

Orographic precipitation

Answer

A

(relief rainfall)
caused when air is forced to rise creating an area of low pressure, cools, condenses and forms clouds when it meets land especially in mountains and hills

Question 24

Q

Frontal precipitation

Answer

A

caused when warm air meets cold air and forces warm air to rise - low pressure

Question 25

Q

Convectional precipitation

Answer

A

caused when moisture evaporates and rises when heated by the sun - low pressure 3 c’s

Question 26

Q

Saturated overland flow

Answer

A

surface run off caused when soil is saturated

Question 27

Q

What is a drainage basin?

Answer

A

it is an open system
an area of land that is drained by a river and its tributaries and separated from neighbouring drainage basins by a high ridge called the water shed

Question 28

Q

Inputs in a drainage basin

Answer

A

precipitation

Question 29

Q

outputs in a drainage basin

Answer

A

evapotranspiration

runoff

Question 30

Q

stores in a drainage basin

Answer

A

interception storage
channel storage
saturated ground-water storage
unsaturated ground water storage

Question 31

Q

flows in a drainage basin

Answer

A

interception 
stem flow
overland flow
infiltration 
throughflow
percolation 
baseflow

Question 32

Q

What is an open system?

Answer

A

inputs and outputs are cycles and there can be loose or gained to the system

Question 33

Q

Define basin-wide factors

Answer

A

factors that affect the whole basin

Question 34

Q

What does the ITCZ stand for?

Answer

A

Inter tropical convergence zone

Question 35

Q

What is the ITCZ?

Answer

A

A zone of convergence at the thermal equator where the trade winds meet.
A low pressure belt which migrates with the changing position of the thermal equator

Question 36

Q

How does the ITCZ work?

Answer

A

the thermal equator is exposed to the most intense heat from the sun over a small area
the movement of the thermal equator shifts the belt of planetary winds and pressure systems to the north and to the south annually
brings area of low pressure = rain and storms
moves to north which will experience wet weather and the area above will have hot, dry weather

Question 37

Q

Weather systems and air pressure

Answer

A

pole = high pressure 
60 = low pressure 
30 = high pressure 
equator = low pressure 
30 = high pressure 
60 = low pressure 
pole = high pressure

Question 38

Q

Factors affecting a drainage basin

Answer

A

size of basin
drainage density
level of forest
impermeable soils and rocks
urban development
reservoirs
rural land-use
permeable soils and rocks
steep slopes
snow-capped peaks

Question 39

Q

Factors affecting a drainage basin - size of basin

Answer

A

large collects more precipitation and are affected by more basin-wide factors than small basins

Question 40

Q

Factors affecting a drainage basin - drainage density

Answer

A

low drainage density means slow movement of water across the basin area

Question 41

Q

Factors affecting a drainage basin - level of forest

Answer

A

more forested slopes means more interception of precipitation, which increases level of evapotranspiration and reduces surface run off

Question 42

Q

Factors affecting a drainage basin - Impermeable soils and rocks

Answer

A

prevents infiltration and causes surface saturation

Question 43

Q

Factors affecting a drainage basin - urban development

Answer

A

surfaces are impermeable and increase rapid run off, evaporation and interception

Question 44

Q

Factors affecting a drainage basin - reservoirs

Answer

A

hold back the flow of water and create new surface stores

Question 45

Q

Factors affecting a drainage basin - rural land use

Answer

A

permits more natural processes than urban

-grasslands have higher infiltration, percolation, through-flow and evaporation than arable land

Question 46

Q

Factors affecting a drainage basin - permeable soils and rocks

Answer

A

allow more infiltration and percolation, which in turn provide greater recharge of groundwater

Question 47

Q

Factors affecting a drainage basin - steep slopes

Answer

A

promotes faster movement and shorter storage time than gentler slopes

Question 48

Q

Factors affecting a drainage basin - snow-capped peaks

Answer

A

holds water back until thaw - delayed flows

Question 49

Q

What are the physical factors affecting inputs of a drainage basin?

Answer

A

types and intensity of precipitation
amount
intensity
seasonality
distribution

Question 50

Q

What are the physical factors affecting inputs of a drainage basin? - types and intensity of precipitation

Answer

A

convectional and relief
form - snow, rain or hail
snow as the entry of water into the system will create delays

Question 51

Q

What are the physical factors affecting inputs of a drainage basin? - amount

Answer

A

-it will affect the amount of water in the basin ad the fluxes within it

Question 52

Q

What are the physical factors affecting inputs of a drainage basin? - intensity

Answer

A

the greater the intensity, the greater the likelihood of flooding

Question 53

Q

What are the physical factors affecting inputs of a drainage basin? - seasonality

Answer

A

this is likely to result in the drainage basin system operating at different flow levels at different times of the year

Question 54

Q

What are the physical factors affecting inputs of a drainage basin? - distribution

Answer

A

-this is significant in large drainage basins (The Nile and The Ganges) where tributaries start in different climate zones

Question 55

Q

Where is precipitation the highest?

Answer

A

-highest precipitation found in tropics due to ITCZ and in some places during monsoon season

Question 56

Q

How does the ITCZ affect precipitation?

Example of a place that is affected by this

Answer

A

The intense solar radiation fuels the convection of warm humid air, resulting in condensation and precipitation

e. g. Mawsynram, India
- highest average rainfall = 11,873mm per year which is mostly during monsoon season June-Sept

Question 57

Q

Where has the lowest average rainfall?

Answer

A

in the Antacama Desert, Chile driest place on Earth with less than 0.2mm per year
-stable area of high atmospheric pressure

Question 58

Q

What is the distribution of precipitation influenced by?

Answer

A

influenced by continentality (the distance from the sea)
continental interiors, such as the Gobi Desert in Asia or Alice Springs region in Australia - they are far from the moisture of maritime air masses

Question 59

Q

Where can orographic precipitation be found?

Answer

A

In mountain areas where prevailing winds are forced to rise over high altitudes

Question 60

Q

How does interception occur?

Answer

A

vegetation intercepts rainfall
the water reaches soil via stem flow or through fall
the undergrowth may intercept some water falling
some water may return to atmosphere through evapotranspiration

Question 61

Q

Define interception

Answer

A

the process whereby raindrops are prevented from falling directly on to the ground by the presence of a layer of vegetation

Question 62

Q

Stem flow

Answer

A

water flowing down the vegetation stems to the ground below

Question 63

Q

Through-fall

Answer

A

where water drips onto the ground

Question 64

Q

What is the rate of interception dependant on?

Answer

A

precipitation

- vegetation

Answer 65

A

-when the precipitation is light and of short duration, as dry leaves and stems have the greatest water storage capacity

Answer 66

A

-as vegetation becomes water or rainfall intensity increases, more water will drip or flow to the ground and interception effectiveness will decrease

Answer 67

A

the vegetation type and cover influence interception
denser types such as coniferous forests, intercept more rainfall than sparser deciduous forests
especially in winter, when temperate deciduous trees shed their leaves; and forests intercepts more than grass and crops

Answer 68

A

the movement of water vertically downwards through pores in the soil
-once in the soil, water moves both vertically and laterally through. it - this is a downslope movement under the influence of gravity towards a stream or river

Answer 69

A

is the maximum rate at which the soil can absorb precipitation

Answer 70

A

the amount of water already in the soil

- the degree of saturation

Answer 71

A

precipitation intensity
vegetation cover
soil and rock type
slope gradient
water table depth
direct runoff (overland flow)

Answer 72

A

-infiltration-excess overland flow will occur when rainfall intensity exceeds infiltration capacity, meaning the water flows over the surface and infiltration is reduced

Answer 73

A

-roots help to break up the soil, increasing the infiltration rates

Answer 74

A

-infiltration rates will increase as porosity and permeability increases

Answer 75

A

-as gradient increase more water will flow over the surface, reducing infiltration

Answer 76

A

-as the water table rises during prolonged rainfall, the soil will become saturated, reducing infiltration

Answer 77

A

-water flowing over the surface of the ground

Answer 78

A

occurs when water accumulates in the soil until the water table reaches or ponds on the surface, forcing further rainwater to run off surface
common where there are thin soils of moderate permeability
cavities near stream or river bank often have high moisture levels and may produce saturated overland flow early in rainstorm cycle

Answer 79

A

occurs when the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity, so the excess water flow over the ground surface
any surface runoff will quickly deliver water into river channels, increasing the risk of flooding downstream

Answer 80

A

the total amount of moisture removed from a drainage basin by processes of evaporation and transpiration which represents a significant output

Answer 81

A

the process by which liquid water is transformed into water vapour

Answer 82

A

the biological process by which water is drawn upwards from the soil by plants and evaporated through the minute pores (stomata)

Answer 83

A

the amount of evapotranspiration that could take place given unlimited supplies of water in an environment

Answer 84

A

the amount of evapotranspiration that takes place given the actual water availability

Answer 85

A

temperature
wind
vegetation cover
soil moisture content

Answer 86

A

rate of ET increases with temperature

- main source is solar radiation, so evaporation and temperature will increase with sunshine hours

Answer 87

A

-increase rate of evaporation by reducing the relative humidity and preventing saturation of the air

Answer 88

A

transpiration will increase with increased vegetation cover which will depend on the type of vegetation and the season
vegetation with a low albedo (reflectivity) such as dark forests, will absorb more solar radiation increasing evaporation

Answer 89

A

this will determine the amount of water available for transpiration
this is dependant on soil and rock permeability

Answer 90

A

water that has collected to flow in a rivulet, stream or river

Answer 91

A

-when infiltrating, water reaches permeable underlying bedrock, this will continue to move slowly downwards in to the rock by the process of percolation

Answer 92

A

The water will fill the spaces within the permeable or porous rock, creating groundwater storage and an aquifer

this will happen where the permeable layer lies above an impermeable rock layer so that the water can percolate further
this creates a saturated zone in the upper level called the water table
water may then move laterally as groundwater flow, if the geological structure allows

Answer 93

A

permeability of the rock - linked to porosity and perviousness
angle of the rock

Answer 94

A

porosity relates to the total volume of pore spaces and is greatest in coarse-grained rocks (Sandstone)
while pervious rocks such as limestone have joints and bedding planes along which water can flow
therefore percolation and groundwater flow rates will increase with porosity and perviousness
impermeable rocks such as granite, however will prevent any percolation or water movement through the ground

Answer 95

A

-the rate of groundwater flow will increase according to the angle of the rock strata as a steeper gradient will allow gravity to separate more effectivley

Answer 96

A

over abstraction
deforestation
creation of dams and reservoirs
cloud seeding
urbanisation

Answer 97

A

-this is the attempt to change the type or amount of precipitation by dispersing substances into the air that serve as cloud condensation nuclei (hygroscopic nuclei)

Answer 98

A

-a microscopic particle in the free air, on to which water vapour may condense to form droplets

Answer 99

A

new technology and research claims to have reliable results that make cloud seeding a dependable and affordable water-supply practice for many regions
however its effectiveness is still debated

Answer 100

A

e. g. Bejing, China - used it just before 2008 Olympic Games to create rain to clear the air of pollution
e. g. Alpine Meadow, California - used to improve snow cover
e. g. Texas - used to reduce the impact of drought

Answer 101

A

creates impermeable surfaces that reduce infiltration and increases surface run off and through flow through artificial drains
stream and river discharges often increase rapidly as a result

Answer 102

A

e.g. Winchester and Maidenhead - urbanisation has increased flood risk in many towns and cities 2015 floods

Answer 103

A

dams increase surface water stores and evaporation and reduce downstream river discharge
the flow rate of the river below a dam is restricted
water is held behind the dam and often released from some depth, the temp of the water below the dam is usually lower
the chemistry of the water is changed - water exiting will be higher in dissolved salts or have lower oxygen levels

Answer 104

A

created to provide electricity without pollution, for flood protection and for making water accessible for agriculture and human needs
once they are built, the flow rate of the river below a dam is restricted

Answer 105

A

reservoirs increase the potential for evaporation from the river
reservoir behind a dam causes the velocity if the water to drop

Answer 106

A

e. g. Asawm Dam, Egypt
- lake Nasser behind the dam is estimated to have evaporation losses of 10 to 16 bn cubic metres every year
- this represents a loss of 20-30% of the Egyptian water volume from the river nile

Answer 107

A

groundwater can be abstracted from aquifers faster than it is replaced
causing reduced groundwater flow and lower water table
in some locations, reduced industrial activity or deforestation has increased groundwater storage, increasing the risk of groundwater flooding if the water table reaches the land surface

Answer 108

A

e. g. The Aral Sea
- over 90% has disappeared due to over abstraction for irrigating cotton by Soviet Union
- new diseases emerged relating to breathing
- fields planted to make the Soviet Union completely self sufficient in cotton, this consumed the rivers feeding into the sea
- now a pit of sand, salt and pollution - wind brings salt into nearby towns - health problems
- pesticides- used to yield cotton, leached into the rivers, water pollution - health problems

Answer 109

A

clearance of trees reduces evapotranspiration, but increases infiltration and surface run off
the moisture of this evapotranspiration contributes to form rainclouds which releases water back into rainforest
less moisture goes into the atmosphere when trees are cut, rainfall declines - leads to droughts
the moisture generated by rainforests travels around the world - therefore distance rainforests are important to farmers everywhere

Answer 110

A

e. g. Amazonia
- deforestation has affected the drainage basin
- lowered humidities, less precipitation
- more surface run off and infiltration
- more evaporation and less transpiration
- more soil erosion and silt being fed into rivers

Answer 111

A

an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock

-groundwater can be extracted by using water well

Answer 112

A

-an underground boundary between the soil surface and the area where groundwater saturates spaces between sediments and cracks in the rocks

Answer 113

A

occurs when the water in soils evaporates in high temperatures daring salts from the soil to the surface
these salts are toxic to many plants and makes the land unusable
irrigation of land can cause this

Answer 114

A

when water is brought to land that is usually dry

Answer 115

A

precipitation = discharge + evapotranspiration + -change in storage 
P = Q + E + -S

Answer 116

A

precipitation is greater than potential evapotranspiration and the soil water store is full so there is a surplus of soil moisture for plant use, runoff and recharging groundwater
-soil is at field capacity

Answer 117

A

potential evapotranspiration increases and exceeds precipitation, so there is more water evaporating from the ground surface and being transpired by plants than is falling as rain

water is drawn up from the soil by capillary action
the water is gradually used up

Answer 118

A

the soil water store has been used by high rates of evapotranspiration and low precipitation
-plants can only survive if they are adapted to periods of drought or are irrigated

Answer 119

A

this occurs when potential evapotranspiration decreases so that it is lower than precipitation and the soil starts to fill up again

Answer 120

A

the soil is now full of water and cannot hold anymore - further rain could lead to surface run off

Answer 121

A

the amount of evapotranspiration that occurs as a result of temperature and vegetation as long as there is water available

Answer 122

A

it describes the annual variation in the discharge of a river at a particular point

Answer 123

A

occur when the river experiences one main factor leading to a period of high and a period of low discharge
e.g. snowmelt in summer or a rainy season

Answer 124

A

more likely to occur in long rivers that cross more than one type of catchment which results in more than one factor influencing the pattern of discharge
e.g. The Mekong river

Answer 125

A

e. g. The Mekong River
- has a large catchment so therefore experiences different climates across the basin
- varying terrain and vegetation cover adding to the complexity of the pattern
- passes through mountainous relief close to its source in the Tibetan Plateau
- as well as tropical areas with dense vegetation cover and monsoon climate close to its mouth

Answer 126

A

size of catchment
precipitation
temperatures
vegetation cover
human intervention
geology and soil type

Answer 127

A

the larger the catchment area, the greater the discharge and more complex river regime

Answer 128

A

amount, pattern and intensity
seasonal maximum often reflected in regime
snow reduces discharge until it melts in the summer

Answer 129

A

this controls evapotranspiration which will be the greatest in the summer and reduce the discharge
glaciers melt in the summer which results in an increase in discharge

Answer 130

A

this is influenced by climate and humans

- the greater the vegetation = less fluctuation in discharge as water is intercepted, utilised and evaporated

Answer 131

A

-dam building changes flow and can regulate it

Answer 132

A

water stored in groundwater in permeable rocks steadily feeds the river as base flow all year, reducing fluctuation
impermeable will fluctuate more - decreases more in summer

Answer 133

A

precipitation

Answer 134

A

water levels rising in the river

Answer 135

A

time between peak rainfall and peak flow (how long the water takes to get to the river)

Answer 136

A

amount of water in the river (discharge, cumecs)

Answer 137

A

highest discharge

Answer 138

A

water that comes as surface run off/ overland flow

Answer 139

A

water levels falling in the river

Answer 140

A

water that came through the soil

Answer 141

A

water that came through the rocks

Answer 142

A

short lag time
peak discharge is high
rising limb is steep
rainfall has reached the river quickly
more likely to cause flooding

Answer 143

A

long lag time
peak discharge is ow
rising limb is gentle
rainfall has reached river slowly
less likely to cause flooding

Answer 144

A

saturated ground
frozen ground
steep relief
high drainage density
circular drainage basin shape
more rainfall
dry soil

Answer 145

A

impermeable surfaces
deforestation
urban areas

Answer 146

A

-forest area 
less rainfall 
-hot temperatures 
-permeable surfaces 
-elongated basin shape 
-low drainage density 
-flat land 
-dry soil

Answer 147

A

rural area

- afforestation

Answer 148

A

normally dry ground would have lots of pore spaces
therefore would encourage infiltration to occur until the soil becomes saturated again
unless the precipitation is bigger than infiltration capacity

Answer 149

A

sometimes the dry ground may have experienced high evapotranspiration which may have drawn salts up through the soil via capillary action
left a salty crust on the surface, making it initially impermeable until washed away

Answer 150

A

drainage basin size
drainage basin shape
drainage basin relief
soil type
rock type
drainage density
natural vegetation
land use
precipitation intensity
precipitation duration
snowfall
evapotranspiration

Answer 151

A

smalls basins - water will reach the channel rapidly, as it has shorter distance to travel
large basins - water will take longer to reach the channel as it has a greater distance to travel

Answer 152

A

circular basins - it will take less time for the water to reach the channel, as all the extremities are equidistant from the channel
elongated basins - water will take a long time to reach the channel from the extremities of the drainage basin

Answer 153

A

steep slopes - water flows rapidly downhill and reaches the channel quickly
gentle slopes - water can infiltrate into the ground and travel slowly to the channel through the soil and rock

Answer 154

A

clay soils and thin soils- clay soils have low porosity and the grains swell when they absorb water, so water infiltrates slowly. Thin soil becomes saturated quickly
sandy soils and thick soils - sandy soils have high porosity so the water can infiltrate. Deep soils allow more infiltration

Answer 155

A

impermeable rocks - water cannot percolate into the rock, increasing surface run off to rivers
permeable rocks - water percolates through pore spaces and fissures into the groundwater store

Answer 156

A

high drainage density - a large number of surface streams per km squared means the storm water will reach the main channel rapidly
low drainage density - a small number of surface streams per km squared means the water travels slowly through the soil and rocks to the river

Answer 157

A

thin grass - intercepts little water and there is little loss by evapotranspiration so more water reaches the channel rapidly
forest and woodland - intercepts water and has high rates of evapotranspiration, so less water reaches the channel and more slowly

Answer 158

A

urban - urban surfaces have more hard surfaces such as roads and drains that carry the water rapidly and directly to the river
rural - vegetated surfaces intercept water and allow infiltration so water travels slowly to the river channel

Answer 159

A

high intensity - when rain falls faster than the infiltration capacity, surface run off occurs and transports the water rapidly to the channel
low intensity - water can infiltrate into the soil and then travel slowly through the soil to the river channel

Answer 160

A

prolonged - the water table rises and the soil becomes saturated causing surface run off which travels to the river channel
short duration - most of the water infiltrates into the soil and travels slowly through the soil into the rocks before reaching the channel

Answer 161

A

fast snowmelt - meltwater cannot infiltrate into the frozen ground, so it flows rapidly over the surface into the river channel
slow snowmelt - the ground thaws with the snow, so the meltwater can infiltrates into the soil and rocks before reaching the channel

Answer 162

A

low rates - fewer losses from the drainage basin system will increase discharge into the river channel
high rates - high evapotranspiration losses will reduce discharge into the river channel

Answer 163

A

they are required to determine whether any proposed developments will influence flood risk with the change in land use
The National Planning Policy Framework set out strict guidelines in England

Answer 164

A

decisions vary depending on how much weight I given to environmental factors versus those favouring economic development - this increases the likelihood of higher flow and faster response time as it alters the rivers flow

Answer 165

A

Sustainable drainage systems

-these have been introduced to reduce run off produced

Answer 166

A

green roofs
infiltration basins
permeable pavements
rainwater harvesting
soak away
filter drains
detention basins
wetlands

Answer 167

A

vegetation cover planted over a waterproof membrane

Answer 168

A

shallow depressions dug out to delay run off and increase infiltration

Answer 169

A

to delay runoff by using gaps between pavement slabs

Answer 170

A

collecting rainwater from roofs to be recycled e.g. for irrigation gardens

Answer 171

A

a channel dug out to disperse surface water into the ground

Answer 172

A

trenches filled with gravel to take run off away

Answer 173

A

to delay storm runoff for a few hours

Answer 174

A

retention areas with marsh/wetland vegetation

Answer 175

A

meteorological drought
agricultural drought
hydrological drought
socio/economic/famine drought

Answer 176

A

-occurs when long term precipitation is lower than normal (region specific)

Answer 177

A

insufficient soil moisture to meet the crops needs

Answer 178

A

deficiencies in surface and sub surface supplies

-rivers, reservoirs, lakes and groundwater - can lead to salinisation in high temps

Answer 179

A

global atmospheric circulation system and the ITCZ
mid latitude blocking anticyclones
El Nino southern oscillation cycle

Answer 180

A

air rises leading to low pressure and rainfall
- when air reaches the edge of the atmosphere, it cant go any further so it travels north and south 30 degrees and fall creating high pressure areas

Answer 181

A

the air becomes colder and denser and falls creating an area of high pressure and dry conditions at around 30 degrees north and south

Answer 182

A

air rises again at 60 degrees north and south and descends again at poles

Answer 183

A

At the equator the ground is intensely heated by the sun which causes the air to rise creating an area of low pressure
as air rises, forms thick cumulonimbus clouds and air continues to rise up to upper atmosphere
air separates and starts to move both north and south. towards poles
when It reaches 30 - ccc - forms sub tropical high p
the air completes the cycle and flows back towards the equator as trade winds

Answer 184

A

the winds flow to the right and are called northeast trade winds
-due to coriolis force and friction

Answer 185

A

the winds flow to the left and are called southeast trade winds
-due to Coriolis force and friction

Answer 186

A

the sub-tropical high pressure zone (STR sub tropical ridge) associated with the descending Hadley cell air blocks the high humidity, rain bearing air masses that arrive with the ITCZ
this is because it is very dense and stable which can cause severe drought in areas like the Sahel

Answer 187

A

air falls
winds move clockwise and are gentle
high pressure area
dry weather - hot in summer and very cold in winter
very stable, not easily moved and can stay put for several weeks

Answer 188

A

in mid latitudes, frontal precipitation is created in low pressure systems that form along polar front where warm tropical air rises over cold polar air
depressions move from west to east in the mid lat due to coriolis force and their track is directed by the polar front jet streams
the loops of the jet stream sometimes stabilise or even break up and this allows high pressure areas from subtropics to move northwards
anticyclones bring stale weather conditions with very little precipitation
the rain bearing depressions are pushed around them usually to north but sometimes to south -causing drought In mid latitude countries
the stability of anticyclones means they can persist and block weather systems from the west for up to two weeks
if this is repeated over the space of 2 months - normal precipitation levels are reduced and may cause drought

Answer 189

A

deforestation -reduces evapotranspiration
poverty - land over-use, marginal land use
over cultivation and over grazing
development
population rise
growing affluence of a population - increases demand
climate change
over abstraction of groundwater (hydrological drought)

Answer 190

A

human responses to water shortages influence water levels in reservoirs, aquifers and rivers
people have directly affected the development of droughts by abstracting water from rivers and groundwater
and by reducing the supply of water by building reservoirs and water transfers
humans are indirectly affected the developments of droughts by changing land uses and altering hydrological processes

Answer 191

A

reduces vegetation cover
reduces evapotranspiration rates and thereby reducing atmospheric moisture and precipitation
the removal of vegetation also changes soil conditions through compaction and reduces organic matter and moisture retention
this reduces infiltration and increases surface run off which reduces soil moisture content and water storage

Answer 192

A

a cyclical sequence of events that amplifies or increases change

Answer 193

A

a cyclical sequence of events that damps down or neutralises the effects of a system

Answer 194

A

a measure of how much light that hits a surface is reflected without being absorbed

Answer 195

A

Abiotic

biotic

Answer 196

A

non-living

water
soil
rocks
atmosphere

Answer 197

A

living

plants
animals
fungi

Answer 198

A

nutrient cycling 
hydro cycle 
weathering 
food webs 
-these make up the functioning of the ecosystem

Answer 199

A

the biological, chemical and physical processes that take place within an ecosystem

Answer 200

A

is the capacity of an ecosystem to recover from disturbance or withstand ongoing pressure

Answer 201

A

less river and groundwater flow into the wetlands lead to areas of open water shrinking and drying up leading to habitat loss
wetland less able to provide clean water for streams
organic soils oxidise and break down releasing carbon into atmosphere
concentrations of pollutants increase, further reducing populations of different species
less resilient species may be eliminated from the ecosystem affecting the food web
persistent dry conditions can encourage wild fires
soil moisture reduces and soil dries out, becoming vulnerable to erosion and then less able to store water in times of flood
loss of food supply for non aquatic birds are less able to find invertebrates
e. g. Minsmere, Suffolk

Answer 202

A

supplies water to people
drought can occur in west of the US which can help to create wild fires
caused large insect outbreaks which is deadly to millions of trees and making them more prone to fires

Answer 203

A

water storage
regulation of hydrological cycle
timber production
wildlife habitat
carbon sequestration
recreational opportunities

Answer 204

A

living trees take an average of 2-4 years to recover and resume normal growth rates following a period of drought
resilience to drought was lower for some species (pine) which keeps using water at a a high rate

Answer 205

A

foliage loss
impairing growth
increased accumulation of pests and diseases
lashing damage to vascular tissues
impairing water transport

Answer 206

A

-river flooding

discharge exceeds banks full of discharge and overflows from the river

Answer 207

A

surface flooding
urban flooding where the drains overflow and water comes up
water table rising to the surface creates ground saturation which results in saturated overland flow and groundwater flooding
infiltration excess flooding - rain is falling faster than infiltration capacity rate

Answer 208

A

a low pressure weather system which causes frontal rain as warm air from the warm front is forced to rise over cold air from the cold front

Answer 209

A

-they move eastwards across the Atlantic to the UK because jet-streams move them

Answer 210

A

the cold front is blue with triangles, warm front is red with semi circles, black circular lines are isobars which are close together
they look like a swirling cloud

Answer 211

A

steady rain can lead to saturated overland flow
intense rain can lead to infiltration excess overland flow
if the jet stream stays put over a region for a longer period of time - this place can receive more depressions than usual and therefore be at greater risk of flooding

Answer 212

A

there is uncertainty
it has been suggested that the jet stream may become weaker as the Arctic warms and the tropics expand
meaning it may stay put over areas for longer period time leading to more extreme conditions
e. g. Cumbria floods in 2015 Storm Desmond

Answer 213

A

snow and ice responsible for flooding in mountain ranges and in higher latitudes
melting snow in late spring creates flooding in the continental interiors of Asia and America
the quick transition from winter to spring upstream causes rapid snow melting, while their lower reaches remain frozen with limited infiltration
flood water is often held up by temporary ice dams
sometimes rain falls on melting snow when a rapid thaw occurs and this combination can cause heavy flooding

Answer 214

A

the rapid melting arctic is new disturbing the jet stream
the northern Hemisphere’s jet stream moves from west to east in the mid latitudes between hot tropicals and cold arctic
the strongest winds are concentrated in a band - not fixed - brings storms
climate change has increased temps in tropics, when jet streams move north to Uk, experience unusually hot temps
some suggest that rapidly warming arctic is weakening the jet b y reducing the contrast between the tropical and polar air
as a result, the jet meanders more to the north and south, and these meanders can remain fixed over one location for longer

Answer 215

A

-the itcz moves north in the summer and south in winter and causes the Asian Monsoon season

Answer 216

A

describes the seasonal reversals of wind direction, caused by temperatures between the land and sea

Answer 217

A

large land masses heat up rapidly, drawing humid air in from the surrounding ocean
as the moisture laden air reaches the warm. land, it rises ad the moisture condenses as rain
warmer land (low pressure and rise)
Cooler ocean (high pressure - cool air sinks)

Answer 218

A

land mass becomes cooler than the surrounding ocean
cold, dry air flows. from the land out over the ocean
cooler land (high pressure - sinks)
warm ocean (low pressure -warm rises)

Answer 219

A

due to intense solar heating in late spring as the solar maximum moves north from the equator

Answer 220

A

suggested an increase in monsoon rainfall on a seasonal mean due to warming. over the Indian Ocean which. allows more moisture to be carries to India
the variability of rainfall on shorter time scales has bigger impacts - intense heavy rainfall leads to flooding - breaks in the monsoon of a week or more lead to water shortages and agricultural drought

Answer 221

A

floodplain drainage
deforestation and removal of natural vegetation
mismanagement of rivers using hard engineering
urbanisation

Answer 222

A

done to provide land for agriculture or expand or urban areas
this reduces the natural storage capacity of the floodplain especially where natural wetlands are lost
land also shrinks when it is drained making it more low lying and vulnerable to flooding

Answer 223

A

for agriculture and urbanisation
reduces interception and evapotranspiration
increases surface run off (saturated overland flow) and resulting in discharge reaching the river quicker (flashy graph)
increases soil erosion, resulting in higher sediment deposition and load in channels - reducing river capacity increasing flood risk
e. g. deforestation in Nepal and Tibet is increasing flood risk in Bangladesh from the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers

Answer 224

A

using these structures can sometimes just transfer the flood problem elsewhere
building artificial levees increase channel capacity but precipitation is funnelled downstream instead

Answer 225

A

e. g. The river Mississippi
- where channelisation (altering of channels, making it wider, deeper and straighter) and levees have actually increased flood risk by constricting the water and putting pressure on the levees until they burst (1993 and 2011)

Answer 226

A

expansion of impermeable surfaces (roads, roofs, patios) increases surface run off into rivers via the urban drainage system
lag times are reduced as drainage systems aim to deliver water quickly to water courses so that streets don’t flood

Answer 227

A

structural damage to building and infrastructure (bridges)
lower property values
higher insurance premiums/refusals of insurance
loss of livelihoods (farming, factories)
drop in tourism

Answer 228

A

natural moderate floods can be beneficial to wetland ecosystems by encouraging nutrient dispersal, breeding and migration
recharge of groundwater supplies
environments already degraded by human activities, flooding becomes more negative
excessive overland flow brings too much sediment and washes too many nutrients into ecosystems leading to eutrophication or pollution from chemicals which degrade ecosystems

Answer 229

A

stress and grief
sewage mixing with flood water creating secondary hazard (diseases)
tropical countries - poisonous snakes

Answer 230

A

-spring floods are frequently intensified by rapid snow melt in the higher parts of the River Ouse catchment

Answer 231

A

spring floods occurs as ice dams melt leading to catastrophic draining of glacial lakes
sometimes the flooding is exacerbated by landslides or earthquake induced dam failure

Answer 232

A

-glacial outburst floods are particularly frequent because of activity, which generates melt water beneath the ice sheets and acts as a trigger for ice instability and the sudden release of melt water - jokulhlaup

Answer 233

A

when temps soar upstream but ground remains frozen downstream, reducing infiltration

Answer 234

A

refers to the climate anomalies that relate to each other over large distractions
-ENSO cycles have been connected with climate anomalies across the world

Answer 235

A

in the ocean warm water pushes colder water downwards blocking the important upwelling of nutrient rich water from the bottom
this causes some marine life to migrate to colder waters
animals that normally feed on the sea life suffer and fisheries throughout central and South America suffered

Answer 236

A

-in the western US and central and South America, the warm air and moisture lead to increase storms, rainfalls, floods, loss of life and property and increase to some vector prone diseases like Malaria - even in places that it doesn’t normally occur

Answer 237

A

-the opposite takes place, these areas suffer from droughts, wildfires, and colder oceans

Answer 238

A

precipitation
run off leading to flooding
ice
Permafrost
reservoir, lake and wetland storage
snow
soil moisture stores leading to drought.

Answer 239

A

will increase precipitation intensity
large amount of water will fall in a shorter length of time
length, intensity and frequency of heatwaves in Southern Europe has increased
rain instead of snow
warmer atmosphere has more water holding capacity

Answer 240

A

there will be an increase in extremes - more low flows and more high flows
more intense rainfall will increase run off rates and reduce infiltration

Answer 241

A

glaciers. have retreated with down wasting
thinning of a glacier due to the melting of the ice
due to rapid increase in temp and more rain/little snow
tropical altitude glaciers retreated the most (The Andes) - lowering flow from decreasing cryosphere supply

Answer 242

A

physical changes of climate at high altitudes
this increases air and ocean temperatures leading to Permafrost degradation
deepening of the active layer
impacts groundwater supplies and relapses methane from thaw lakes
leads to positive feedback and accelerating change

Answer 243

A

changes in wetland storage are occurring

- wetlands are affected where there are decreasing water volumes and higher temperatures

Answer 244

A

length of snow cover season has decreased

- spring melt has occurred earlier

Answer 245

A

where precipitation increases - soil moisture increases
warmer temperatures have led to increased drying of the land surface - increased severity of droughts
The Sahel

Answer 246

A

unknown tipping point
complexity of the atmospheric system (The ENSO cycles and sunspot activity) complicates data
insufficient and incomplete data
inconsistent results of climate models
uncertainty about amounts of carbon will be released and the effect will. have on temps and rainfall
population, development, technology, new reserves

Answer 247

A

when present and future water supplies cannot be guaranteed

Answer 248

A

renewable water supplies from rivers, aquifers and lakes become very low (less than 500 m3 per person per year) Leading to widespread restrictions

Answer 249

A

if a country’s renewable freshwater supply falls to below 1000m3 per person per year

Answer 250

A

if a country’s renewable freshwater supply is between 1000 and 1700m3 per person per year

Answer 251

A

when clean water in unaffordable even if its available

Answer 252

A

The total amount of a country’s water resources (internal and external resources) both surface water and groundwater, which is generates through the hydrological cycle

Answer 253

A

Ancient groundwater stored in an aquifer no longer replenished. Once used, it will not regenerate (non renewable).

Answer 254

A

ENSO cycles
sub tropical ridge
Anticyclones
Climate change
Salt water encroachment

Answer 255

A

the sub tropical ridge is the descending Hadley cell air

- this blocks the low pressure from ITCZ = drought and water scarcity

Answer 256

A

-blocking anticyclones in the northern hemisphere

Answer 257

A

this is a human cause however it is impacting the hydrological cycle and therefore water scarcity
this will increase variability in precipitation patterns
changes in run off, aquifer recharge and water quality
the warmer climate will increase evaporation rates and transpiration - leading to less effective precipitation
the higher temperatures of a warmer climate and localised industrial discharges of warm waste increase many forms of pollution
warm water encourage the growth of bacteria = negative on health
the quality of water may be affected by sedimentation, nutrient enrichment, dissolved organic carbon , pathogens and pesticides

Answer 258

A

occurs due to over-abstraction of water
saltwater contaminating freshwater
salt water seeps into the groundwater

Answer 259

A

when water is abstracted from aquifers near the coast
more water is abstracted as well as sea level rise, salt water seeps into the ground and into the aquifer
slowly contaminating the freshwater supply

Answer 260

A

increasing population and urbanisation
Improving living standards
Industrialisation
Agriculture
low development levels
climate change
Increasing population and economic growth

Answer 261

A

lack of investment into making freshwater available and affordable
water stress

Answer 262

A

damage to ecosystem
decline in water availability
water stress

Answer 263

A

increasing demand for water
over abstraction of groundwater and surface stores
salt intrusion at the coast
water stress

Answer 264

A

world population estimated to be 9.1bn in 2050
water demand is increasing rapidly
Increased urbanisation is causing local pressure on the availability of freshwater
more than half of world pop live in urban areas
this number is predicted to be 6.3bn by 2050
urban population in Africa and Asia

Answer 265

A

rising incomes and living standards of a growing middle class in developing and emerging countries
sharp increase in water use which can be unsustainable

Answer 266

A

increase meat consumption
building larger homes
Increased use of cars, appliances, energy-consumption in production and use

Answer 267

A

water demand for manufacturing would increase by 400% from 2000 to 2050
most increase in emerging and developing
polluted water has increased due to industrial spillage and poor waste management

Answer 268

A

largest use of water consuming between 70-90%
2050 - 60% more food will need to be produced to meet the demands of the growing population
Increases in agricultural demands for freshwater are unsustainable

Answer 269

A

depleting aquifers and reducing river flow
degrading wildlife habitats
Increasing pesticide and fertiliser pollution as they seen into the groundwater
causing water-logging and increased salinity

Answer 270

A

-Aral Sea - over abstraction from surface store and disrupting the drainage basin cycle
-Brazil - over abstraction from groundwater, illegal wells exacerbating the droughts of 2015
Florida - salt water intrusion

Answer 271

A

supply and demand - water scarcity or large population
Infrastructure and investment
government subsidies and taxes
publicly or privately run

Answer 272

A

resources - physical availability of water and its quality
access - for safe water for human use
capacity - effective water management for affordability
use - different purposes
environment - water management for sustainability

Answer 273

A

providing access to clean water involves construction and maintenance of robust infrastructure systems
these services are expensive and therefore difficult for many developing nations to provide -
this is worse in area of poverty and high population density

Answer 274

A

-some rely on street vendors where the cost can be up to x100 more than if its was supplied to the home

Answer 275

A

in the 1980s, the world bank and IMF gave loans that required many developing countries to privatise their water system
In hope that completion would reduce costs
many of these projects have been cancelled due to public pressure as the price of water became unaffordable for a large portion of the population

Answer 276

A

colonial governments installed limited infrastructure to cover what were at the time small cities
massive urban growth has not outgrown the limited infrastructure and the IMF restricts governments spending on services such as water

Answer 277

A

Bolivia - in 1999 Bechtel took over water control in exchange for debt relief for the Bolivian government

the price immediately rose so that is cost 20% of the average income
people protested for four days and the government cancelled the contract
this impact of this is that it led to growing demand fro popular control of Bolivia’s natural resources - Gas wars in 2003 and 2005

Answer 278

A

Canada

water is 80% cheaper than Germany
water is generally over consumed and under priced
water is publicly owned and operated
Industry use is very high

Answer 279

A

Denmark

freshwater prices are the highest in the world
Psychological effect on consumers
theory is that when consumers pay high costs they appreciate the scarcity and value of water
led to water being saved
water consumption in dairy farms and agriculture have fallen dramatically
some food companies are struggling and the difference in the water prices between Denmark and other countries is distorting competition within the food industry

Answer 280

A

improvements in water quality improve sanitation, as well as personal and food hygiene
lower medical costs and lower days of work
Improved sanitation in school especially for girls
Improves school attendance
Improved education, improve career opportunities
leads to reduced poverty

Answer 281

A

with better access to water and water quality, improves sanitation as well as personal and food hygiene
26% reduction in diarrhoea
65% reduction of death from diarrhoea
Improvements to health, reduces poverty as they are able to go to work

Answer 282

A

bad drought -people don’t have enough to eat
enough food - don’t understand what they need to be eating
90% if people don’t have a toilet and half don’t have access to clean drinking
agriculture employs 80% of the pop, but the country does not grow enough food to feed them
has one of the highest rates of stunting - a condition caused by chronic malnutrition during the first 1,000 days of life
children not growing physically or cognitively
poor health, impacts school and employment in later life
half of all under fives are stunted

Answer 283

A

-water needed for manufacturing and industry - these water supplies needs to be reliable and predictable to support financially sustainable investments in economic activities

Answer 284

A

global water demand for these industrial activities are increasing
demand for manufacturing industry is expected to increase by 400% between 2000 and 2050
mostly in emerging and developing

Answer 285

A

demand is increasing

-energy production is water intensive which increases stress on freshwater sources

Answer 286

A

In localised areas where water use for industrial production is not well regulated or enforced, pollution would increase
Increasing economic activity with the degradation of environmental services

Answer 287

A

it is critical for a families health and social dignity
access to water for economic productive uses such as agriculture or family run businesses is critical for generating income and contributing to overall economic productivity

Answer 288

A

-investment in improved water management and sanitation services can help reduce poverty and sustain economic growth through better health, reduced health costs, increased productivity and time savings

Answer 289

A

Limited realisation that there is inequality with it although it is a human right to have water

Answer 290

A

half of all wetlands have been lost - these reduce floods, store water, provide direct economic benefits
forested highlands recharge aquifers and ensure clean water flow for agriculture and hydropower

Answer 291

A

-urban sprawl, urbanisation, over-abstraction, agriculture, deforestation, pollution
all undermine an environments capacity to sustain itself

Answer 292

A

degreased water systems that have difficulty regulating and restoring themselves, losing resilience which accelerates water quality degradation and reduces water availability for nature and people

Answer 293

A

the sea has a productive ecosystem with fish in water and invertebrates in muds
providing a food source for over 400 species
sea water falling due to evaporation exceeding inflow
causing salinity levels to increase
water demands are increasing in California so water that should reach the sea is diverted to agriculture

Answer 294

A

crosses more than one border

Answer 295

A

dams, water pollution , water abstraction are always that upstream countries can affect water supply for downstream countries
40% of the world’s population lives within a river or lake drainage basin that extends over 2 or more countries
there are 300 transboundary aquifers

Answer 296

A

158 of the 263 transboundary water basins lack any type of cooperative management framework
there are 263 transboundary lakes which account for 60% of the global freshwater flow
developed countries have more money to invest into infrastructure and technology which therefore only benefits itself

Answer 297

A

longest river in the world
goes through 11 countries
2 major tributaries
flows through semi-arid and arid areas - increases importance of water resources due to scarcity

Answer 298

A

provides for domestic use, industrial use and agricultural use
important for Sudan and Egypt - 95% of Egypt’s water needs

Answer 299

A

population growth
economic development
climate change

Answer 300

A

1929 - nile agreement between the uk and Egypt - granted significant water allocations to Sudan and Egypt making no allowance for water needs of other nile states

granted Egypt veto power over construction power and projects
upstream countries are increasingly harvesting the waters to meet the needs of their growing populations and economies

Answer 301

A

-nile basin initiative was made to enhance cooperation over the use of the nile water sources

Answer 302

A

many countries signed the cooperative framework agreement which was strongly opposed by Egypt and Sudan

Answer 303

A

Ethiopia announced the construction of the Grand Renaissance Dam on the Blue Nile
-Egyptian livelihoods may suffer due to Higher reliance on agriculture

Answer 304

A

Ethiopia, Egypt and Sudan made an agreement at the new dam - Still haven’t solved the border cvnttiius issues of sharing the nile

Answer 305

A

$1.8bn project began in 2018
started to generate electricity in 2015
became the 3rd largest HEP plant in Africa
cash crops planted around the river

Answer 306

A

potentially devastating to the downstream indigenous people - will prevent seasonal floods
more than 200,000 people rely on the Omo River below the river dam for subsistence farming - depend on seasonal floods to replenish the dry soils for planting
tribes people are armed to defend themselves against neighbouring tribes - there are fears that water shortages could cause violent conflict

Answer 307

A

-artificial floods can be released from the reservoir and irrigation projects are planned for massive sugar and cotton plantations - which will improve livelihoods of downstream people

Answer 308

A

may only benefit Ethiopian state owned companies - report of human rights violations made by army against people who oppose the sugar plantains
2011 - UNESCO’s world heritage committee made the construction be halted to investigate the impact on a nearby by world heritage site (Lake Turkana)
the dam could reduce water level of lake by 10m - affecting 300,000 people, increasing salinity, threatening drinking water supply, fishing industry and the lake ecosystem

Answer 309

A

arid climate with abundant rainfall
summer droughts and water shortages in the capital
forced the government to embark on the $32bn southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP)

Answer 310

A

an attempt to improve incomes in Anatolia the least developed part of Turkey
development of an integrated water and energy supply system

Answer 311

A

-impacts Syria and Iraq because it involves damming Euphrates and Tigris Rivers which provides both countries which much of their water

Answer 312

A

55% lost through evaporation and transportation
14% groundwater
15% is unusable
only 16% for use

Answer 313

A

construct 22 dams
19 HEP power plants
provide irrigation fir 1.7m hectares
diversify agriculture into cash crops
help Anatolian economy to grow by 400%

Answer 314

A

Turkey agreed to release water from the Ilisu Dam for Syria
Turkey intends to build the Cizre Dam to collect additional water for irrigation before the Tigris crosses the border
projections claim that by 2040 the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers will no longer reach the sea - due to dam activity and climate change

Answer 315

A

many riverside towns have been flooded causing many to move to a new city (Hasankeyf)
thousands of hectares of farmland have been left uncultivated due to many channels and rivers going dry
al-Adel estimates their agricultural production as dropped by half

Answer 316

A

security experts increasingly argue that resource shortages disrupt communities and create militant recruiting grounds
having military defeated ISIS, Iraq says maintaining supremacy against the Islamic group depends on providing the country with a brighter future - water is critical for this
80% of water goes to agriculture - providing for livelihoods for more than a 1/3 of the population

Answer 317

A

located around southeast Australia
home to more than 2 million people
provides for 75% of Australia’s water

Answer 318

A

due to an increase in water abstraction since the 1920s which is not well managed
affected by ENSO cycles, annual, seasonal and local variations in rainfall - some areas experience surpluses while others have deficits
semi desert areas in south Australia and sub tropical in Queensland

Answer 319

A

agriculture - takes the most water and demand is increasing for this
irrigation - boosts profits and crops that yield the best returns
urban residents - most populated region of southeast Australia
industrial - Queensland mining industry
indigenous groups - where traditional water rights for aboriginal groups are threatened

Answer 320

A

technological fixes

- attitudinal fix

Answer 321

A

which either involve large scale hard engineering projects or small scale innovations and appropriate technology

Answer 322

A

which involve people changing their behaviour towards water use to conserve water

Answer 323

A

equity and social justice
public participation
futurity
environment

Answer 324

A

doesn’t negatively affect downstream
affordable and accessible
compensation for those negatively impacted
fair distribution of water supply

Answer 325

A

involves communities in decision making and implementation
appropriate technologies used so public can access

Answer 326

A

sense of security - water security
economic viability
conservation of water supply

Answer 327

A

no polluting
restoration of lost and damaged ecosystems
protection of wetlands
minimising local and global environment impacts

Answer 328

A

smart irrigation
price of water
virtual water
water recycling
rainwater harvesting

Answer 329

A

slow supply of constant water
doesn’t waste any as water is going straight to root
enables monitoring of crops
allows for control of water through technology

Answer 330

A

attitudinal fix

- increasing price of water to reduce water consumption

Answer 331

A

water scarce countries tries to cut out use of water by importing crops
most arid countries uses this
instead to use for agricultural use, can use for domestic

Answer 332

A

-used recycled sewage water for agriculture or even purifies for drinking

Answer 333

A

small/large scale

- collecting rainwater for use

Answer 334

A

built on the Yangtze river which flows west to east through south china
the concrete and steel dam is 2.3km long, 180m high and uses about 510,000 tons of steel.

Answer 335

A

designed to control flooding on the Yangtze, improve water supply by regulating river flow, generating HEP for China’s economic growth and make the river navigable
enables surplus water to build up and be diverted to northern china via the south-north transfer project

Answer 336

A

power generated by 34 generators is equivalent to burning 25 million tons of crude oil
very expensive $35bn
632m2 of land flooded to form a reservoir, displacing 1.4m people from 1500 villages
water quality effected by waste from industry, sewage and farms
decomposing vegetation in the reservoir produces methane which is a strong greenhouse gas

Answer 337

A

to provide water for the Beijing region of China which has 35% of the population, 40% of the arable land but only 7% is water
3 routes will trader 25bn m3 of water from the Yangtze River to northern China, a western route to the yellow river, an eastern route via a series of lakes and central route
due for completion in 2050
critics suggest that with better water management, this project is not needed - rainwater harvesting, reduction in water pollution and better irrigation techniques would improve the water supply

Answer 338

A

Beijing has similar water scarcity to Saudi Arabia with just 100m3 per person
boost economic development in Beijing
will reduce abstraction of groundwater (water table has dropped by 300m since the 70s)

Answer 339

A

costs $70bn
submerges 370km2 of land
345,000 will be displaced
risks draining too much water from south - could cause conflict
eastern route runs through heavy industry so likely to become polluted
water supply might be expensive for farmers to buy so they will continue to extract groundwater
river ecosystems will be affected as natural flooding regimes are changed as floodplains are dried out

Answer 340

A

abstraction of water from the Mediterranean
water is either evaporated to leave behind the salts that make seawater unusable or undergoes reverse osmosis, where water is pushed through a membrane to separate it from its salts

Answer 341

A

can provide a reliable supply for large settlements
5 plants opened in 2013, aiming to provide 70% of Israel’s domestic water supplies by 2020
some plant do use solar power
produces up to 6000 tonnes of potable water per hour

Answer 342

A

each plant requires its own power station in order to boil the water, contributing to carbon emissions - some do use solar power
produces vast amounts of brine that needs to be release back into sea or disposed of which can potentially harm ecosystems

Answer 343

A

domestic consumers
agriculture
The UN
Environmental agency
the EU

Answer 344

A

The un economic commission for Europe water convention

protect and ensure the quantity, quality and sustainable use of trans-boundary water resources
helps with cooperation and resolving issues
establisehd in 1992-1996
to restore water issues
adopt the integrated water presence management at basin scale

Answer 345

A

sets out that water resources are an integral component of ecosystems natural water sources and socio-economic good
promotes co-ordinated management of water and land in a sustainable way

Answer 346

A

water framework and directive and hydropower, agreed in Berlin in 2000
set targets to restore river, lakes and canals to a good condition
requires basin wide assessments of all risks to natural environments posed by new developments

Answer 347

A

checks compliance with EU framework - many will change post Brexit
manage coastal flood risk
manage waste

Answer 348

A

-the world bank stated that the management of basins should involve all players, with lots of cooperation to ensure every player benefits

Answer 349

A

WaterAid – an international non-governmental organisation

- raises funds to improve access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene

Answer 350

A

Kitayita village -

3,000 people lack access to safe water
local builders- been trained in the construction of rainwater harvesting jars -made from locally available materials (made by covering wooden mould with mud, letting it dry and then encasing it in concrete).
objective is to help the community construct on-site water supplies, close to home, removing need for people to travel long distances across difficult terrain to collect water.
jars have long life, and once constructed provides a stable water source for many years.
cheap (just £60 could pay for the construction of one jar) and effective
1 jar can supply 7 households

Answer 351

A

Public participation – appropriate tech used so public can access
Environment – collecting rain water rather than using from larger supplies
Not affecting peoples well-being

Answer 352

A

-Singapore attempts to boost sustainablility in many ways, e.g the whole of Singapore is a water harvesting catchment. Diversified supplies include local catchment water, recycled water and water desalinisation.

Answer 353

A

Their water recycling project, known as NEWater, manages to meet up to 30% of the nation’s current water needs
it is also very sustainable, by 2060, PUB (Singapore’s National water agency) aims to increase efficiency to meet 55% of the water demand with NEWater

Answer 354

A

Singapore has made an agreement until 2061 to import water from Malaysia. They have also managed to cut leakages to 5%, as opposed to 20% leakages in the UK.

Answer 355

A

The increased water catchment for consumption can lead to less inputs into the water cycle, less evapotranspiration and soil water utilisation. Furthermore, as with any process, desalination has by-products that must be taken care of

Answer 356

A

southwest of the USA
river mouth in Mexico
7 states, 2 countries
36 million people rely on this
most endangered river in America
provides for 5 million acres of farmland

Answer 357

A

heavy pumping of groundwater has led to declining aquifers - little base flow feeding the river
Salton sea - this is sustained by water from the river -this is shrinking due to more rover water going to cities and farmland
Lake Mead water levels near Las Vegas is becoming low

Answer 358

A

20% of the world’s land is under full irrigation
majority of irrigation water is pumped from aquifers
this leads to groundwater depletion
which is unsustainable

Answer 359

A

20% of freshwater extraction is for industrial and energy production
this creates large amounts of water pollution
half of water used for energy is for HEP and nuclear power stations

Answer 360

A

rising living standards leads to increased per capita consumption of water
water that is polluted by a lack of sanitation is an effective medium for the breeding and transmission of diseases (cholera)
water is a productive ground for some disease vectors (mosquitoes - Malaria)
safe water is important for washing and preparing food

Answer 361

A

inadequate supply of water can easily impede any water dependant aspects of economic development - costs will rise
this will encourage people to over-exploit what resources they have
this can prolong periods of drought
can lead to desertification

Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Water cycle and Water security Flashcards

Brainscape's Knowledge Genome^TM