W4 - Language Structure & Reading Flashcards
What distinction did Noam Chomsky introduce in 1928 regarding language?
Competence vs. Performance
Define ‘Competence’ in Chomsky’s language theory.
Knowledge of language rules
Define ‘Performance’ in Chomsky’s language theory.
Actual language use influenced by memory and situational factors
What is the focus of grammaticality judgments in language?
Differentiating grammaticality from sensicality - These judgments rely on implicit knowledge of the syntactic rules of a language - innate
What does Chomsky’s generative grammar allow?
Creation of infinite sentences from finite rules via recursion
Why don’t we store all possible sentences according to Chomsky’s theory?
as we have ‘rule-governed creativity’ where we can come up with new well informed sentences
What is the purpose of phrase structure tree/diagram?
To illustrate the hierarchical structure of sentences
How do phrase structure trees function in syntax?
They represent relationships among sentence constituents
What is ‘on-line parsing’?
Incrementally building syntax structure as words are heard or read
In parsing ‘The girl hit the man with the umbrella,’ what ambiguity arises?
Whether the man or girl has the umbrella or if the umbrella is used to hit
What is the Encapsulation model in parsing?
Syntax, semantics, and discourse operate in separate modules
Contrast Encapsulation with Interaction in parsing models.
Interaction allows continuous integration of syntax, semantics, and context
Who proposed the Garden-Path Model and in what year?
Frazier, 1987
What is the ‘Minimal Attachment’ principle in Frazier’s Garden-Path Model?
Choosing the syntactic structure with the fewest nodes
What does ‘Late Closure’ mean in syntactic processing?
Attaching new words to the current phrase or clause
When does reanalysis occur in the Garden-Path Model?
When the initial parse is incompatible with further information
In two-stage models, what follows initial syntactic parsing?
Integration of semantics and pragmatics
How do interactive models process language?
By integrating meaning and context simultaneously
Give an example sentence used to test syntactic misinterpretations.
‘The man saw the girl with the telescope.’
What is a key feature of constraint-based models like MacDonald’s?
Immediate use of all available information (constraints)
How does parallel processing work in constraint-based models?
Multiple syntactic interpretations are considered at once
What happens in constraint-based models when analyses are equally supported?
It creates competition and ambiguity
Define lexical ambiguity with an example.
A word with multiple meanings, e.g., ‘bank’ (financial vs. river bank)
What did Swinney’s 1979 experiment show about lexical ambiguity?
Multiple meanings activate before context selects the appropriate one
Define inference in language comprehension.
Deriving additional meaning beyond literal text
What are logical inferences based on?
Word meanings
What is a bridging (backward) inference?
Connecting new info to prior info, e.g., ‘The car kept overheating’ refers to ‘James’s car.’
Define elaborative (forward) inference.
Extending meaning using world knowledge, e.g., actress falls from the 14th floor implies ‘death.’
Describe the minimalist approach to inferences.
Only necessary and easily accessible inferences are made automatically
How does the constructionist approach to inference differ from the minimalist approach?
It suggests that readers make many inferences automatically
What is the hybrid ‘Search-After-Meaning’ approach to inference?
Reader goals influence whether inferences are minimalist or elaborative
What does ‘Good Enough’ processing mean?
Relying on shallow interpretations, not always striving for deep understanding
How does verbal working memory affect language comprehension?
It influences how well meanings are integrated across sentences
What is psychological essentialism?
Belief in underlying essences defining categories like natural kinds and artifacts
In transformation studies, how do people categorize modified natural kinds vs. artifacts?
Natural kinds remain in their original category; artifacts are recategorized
What does Theory of Mind (ToM) enable in language processing?
Understanding others’ beliefs and perspectives, crucial for irony and metaphor
How do young children tend to categorize identity?
Based on perceptual features
What did first-pass reading times reveal in essentialism studies?
Processing speed differences based on object transformations
How do place-for-institution vs. place-for-event senses differ in processing speed?
Established metonymic senses (place-for-institution) are processed faster
What does the reordered access model of lexical access propose?
Context boosts subordinate meanings in ambiguous words
Define the Subordinate Bias Effect.
Context favors the less frequent (subordinate) meaning of a homonym
What is lexical polysemy with an example?
Words with related senses, e.g., ‘wings’ (literal part vs. metonymic sense for an airplane)
Explain metonymy with an example.
Using a part to represent the whole, e.g., ‘The wings took off’ for ‘airplane.’
What is the Literal-First approach in figurative language processing?
Literal meanings are prioritized before figurative ones
How does the Figurative-First approach differ in processing figurative language?
It suggests figurative meanings can be prioritized, though not strongly supported
What did the parallel model of language access by Cacciari and Glucksberg propose?
All meanings activate simultaneously, without strict hierarchy
What challenge does the Frame Problem pose for inferences?
Determining how far to extend inferences without overloading with irrelevant details
What are logical and bridging inferences necessary for?
Maintaining coherence in discourse
Define ‘Good Enough’ heuristics in language processing.
Using quick, efficient judgments rather than detailed analyses
What factors affect individual comprehension differences according to Gernsbacher?
Working memory and ability to suppress irrelevant meanings
