Unknown

Question 1

What are in the osteocytes
what does these contain
where do they continue

Answer 1

Osteocytes are in lacunae which are surrounded by bone matrix - which have cytoplasmic processes which continue into the tiny canals (canaliculi)

Question 2

What is the ligaments of elbows , knee , intervebrtal

Answer 2

The elbow has collateral ligament
Knee Joint has collateral ligament and cruciate ligament
Intervebtral has longitudinal ligaments

Question 3

what are the porportions of of chains in the myosin
what do they do

Answer 3

Head proportions of each myosin forms 2 light chain
2 light chain
1 alkali chain
1 regulatory chain
Stabilise myosin head and regulate light chain ATP phosphorylate by kinase

Question 4

what does high affinity Ca binding do
What does Ca modulate

Answer 4

High affinity of binding Troponin C and thin filament
Ca2+ modulate contract via regulatory protein rather than interacting directly with contractile proteins

Question 5

The neurotransmitter for parasympathetic nervous system

Answer 5

ACh + NO produce rapid growth
vasoactive intestinal peptide produce a slow delay

Question 6

the neurotransmitters for sympathetic nervous system

Answer 6

ATP produce fast contraction of the smooth muscle
NorAd produces fast response
Neuropeptide Y produces slow reponse

Question 7

frequency of action potential generated

Answer 7

Wave summation - increases but still unconnected
unfused tetanus - increase but more connected
fused tetanus - one continuous increase

Question 8

Abdominus rectus movement while going froms sitting to standing

Answer 8

Abdominus rectus contract
Extrafusal shortens afferent relay information to the motorneuron in the spinal cord
activate a motorneurons causing muscle to relax
y motorneuron is active

Question 9

stretch myotatic

Answer 9

Stretch myotatic - muscle stretched
la afferent fire
a muscle relay to the sensory part
a motorneuron induces contraction
it goes back to the resting length and decrease in firing frequency group la

Question 10

Golgi Tendon

Answer 10

Golgi tendon - muscle contracts
extrafusal fibre shorter and stimulate golgi tendon
Ib start firing and send information to inhibitory interneuron on a motorneuron
it goes back to resting length and decrease in firing frequency Ib
sygnerist relax and the anatgonist contract

Question 11

Flexion withdrawl

Answer 11

Flexion Withdrawl - stimuli flexors are contracted and extensors are relax on same side
opposite flexors relax and extensor contracted
right allow posture and left moves away from the pain

Question 12

Smooth muscle how it causes cross bridge cycle

Answer 12

Rise Ca2+ which bind to calmodulin
Ca2+ + calmodulin complex activated MLCK
MLC is phosphorylated on the myosin head
Cocks and increases ATPase interact in cross bridge cycle

Question 13

Arterial and other smooth muscle
neurotranmitters and type nervous system

Answer 13

Arterial - sympathetic innervation norAdr
Other smooth - sympathetic and parasympathetic with ACh

Question 14

what is pharmochemical coupling

Answer 14

Pharmochemical coupling - agent causes smooth muscle tone without change in membrane potential
intra second messenger to relax and contract
IP3 , cGMP , cAMP

Question 15

Electrochemical coupling

Answer 15

Electrochemical coupling - opening plasma membrane voltage L type Ca2+ channels in response depolarisation with or without action potential

Question 16

What is the system for relax
through NO and Ca

Answer 16

NO -> Guanylate Cyclase (GTP -> cGMP) -> PKG -> Relax
Ca -> Ca calmodulin -> ENos (L arginine + O2 -> NO + citrulline)

Question 17

Alkonitaous plaque

Answer 17

Alkoniatous plaque the NLC opens the left and rightward veins so equal blood even with a block

Question 18

what is Ca channel blocker act as what

Answer 18

Ca Channel blocker act at L type calcium channel on vascular on smooth muscle but also L type calcium channels cardiac myocytes

Question 19

what is pacemaker potential
how does the Action potential spread through
- to trigger what

Answer 19

An autorthymtic cell membrane slow drift to threshold which is known as the pacemaker potential
Initiate APs which then spread through the heart to trigger contraction without nerve stimulation

Question 20

where does the AV travel
what does it allow
what does gap junctions do

Answer 20

AV - goes to the atrial and bundle of his and therefore ventricules
this allows time for blood to move to the ventricles from the atria
Neighbouring cardiac muscle presence in the gap junction
allow rapid spread action potential

Question 21

two factors for Strength Cardiac

Answer 21

the initial length depends on EDV
Sympathetic stimulation

Question 22

How does EDV cause increase in stroke volume

Answer 22

EDV increases which causes the heart to stretch
this causes the initial cardiac fibre length
this increases length greater force of contraction
This causes increase in stroke volume

Question 23

Two factors reponsible

Answer 23

Two factors responsible myogenic and sympathetic
Tonic activity is possible with increases and decrease contractile activity

Question 24

What is tachycardia and bradycardia

Answer 24

Tachycardia - increase activity sympathetic and increase heart rate
Bradycardia - increase activity parasympathetic and decrease heart rate

Question 25

what is chronotpric effect

Answer 25

Chronotropic effect is autonomic nervous affect change in slope causes the pacemaker potential

Question 26

factors causing parasymapethic decrease HR

Answer 26

Parasympathetic and decrease heart rate Hyperpolarization SA node decrease depolarisation increase ACh K+ G protein coupled

Question 27

What does Symapethic HR do

Answer 27

Sympathetic HR pacemaker tissue speed up depolarisation threshold rapidly NorAd Lf and T type channels

Question 28

RAAS

Answer 28

Salt excretion by RAAS antidiuretic hormone atrial nautiruic peptide

Question 29

what does RAAS cause

Answer 29

decrease effective circulatory volume increase sympathetic decrease NaCl concentration

Question 30

What does anigtoensin II do

Answer 30

Angiotensin II - Aldosterone , vasoconstriction and thirst ACEii ARB and CCb

Question 31

Embryonic

Answer 31

Embryonic - primordial lung develops as buds extend outwards from the fetal foregut (26 days - 6 weeks)

Question 32

Pseuodglandaulr

Answer 32

Pseudoglandular - branching airway and vascular duct system fluid secretion into the airways creates a distending pressure which gives mechanical support for the growth of the airway in 3D develop outcome is the formation of conducting airways and blood vessels together known as respiratory tree

Question 33

What is the chloride movement

Answer 33

Chloride gradient drives fluid movement into the airway lumen giving mechanical support 3D Cl - accumulates against its electrochemical gradient

Question 34

what is canalicular

Answer 34

Canalicular - extensive angiogenesis mesenchyme surrounds more distal reaches and form of dense capillary network airways diameter increases decreases epithelial thickness to a more cubodial structure epithelial cells differentiate begins Form respiratory acini around which alveoli will develop differentiation to mesenchyme progresses down the developing respiratory tree giving rise to chondrocytes fibroblasts and myoblasts

Question 35

what is saccular

Answer 35

Saccular - branching and growth terminal sacs or primitive alveolar ducts thinning of stroma brings capillaries into apposition pneumocyte differentiation Type I pneumocytes differentiate from cells with a type II like phenotype blood gas barrier is formed

Question 36

alveolar

Answer 36

Alveolar - decrease in the proportion of parenchyma to total lung volume Na driven fluid absorption from lung lumen maintains thin film of liquid surface airways pulmonary circulation becomes fully established as the umbilical cord

Question 37

First breath

Answer 37

ENaC - selective Ion channel maternal cortisol increases crosses into fetal circulation and indcues ENaC subunit gene expression Rise adrenaline croses fluid rapidly cleared from the fetal lung in preparation for first breath

Question 38

CO2 release from tissue

Answer 38

CO2 release from tissue - CO2 dissolves Low tissues O2 favours CO2 carriage by blood Carbamate reaction reduces HbO2 affinity Carbonic anhydrase -> carbonic acid HCO3 Channel Increase red cells reduce HbO2 affinity ab Hb interaction

Question 39

CO2 release from Red Cell

Answer 39

CO2 release - dissolves into plasma and red blood high affinity Hb O2 Hb carbamate raising availability of higha affinity Hb CO2 diffuses into aveolaous High PO2 decrease CO2 affinity Hb Movement CO2 out of red cell increases HCO3- uptake Proton release Hb and increase HCO3- CO2 lowering bicarbonate

Question 40

Alveolar PO2 calculation

Answer 40

Alveolar PO2 = Inspired PO2 (760 - 47) - arterial pCO2 (inspired PO2 + 1 - inspired PO2 / respiratory quotient)

Question 41

analysis of alveolar PO2 calculation

Answer 41

Calculation of alveolar PO2 affected by atmospheric PO2 and arterial carbon dioxide PO2 and arterial carbon dioxide Arterial PCO2 increases so alveolar PO2 decreases RQ increases alveolar PO2 icnrease

Question 42

poor and good ventialtion

Answer 42

Poor ventilation and large blood flow - reduce perfusion hypoxia and constricts pulmonary arterioles Good ventilation and poor blood flow - reduce ventilation and low CO2 constricts bronchioles

Question 43

what is pulmonary compliance produced by

Answer 43

Pulmonary compliance produced by elastin connective fibres and alveolar surface tension

Question 44

Surface tension in an alveolous

Answer 44

surface tension resists stretch , tends to become smaller and tends to recoil after stretch and contributes to elastic recoil pressure

Question 45

pulmonary surfactant

Answer 45

Composed DPPC packed around surfactant protiens Secreted by Type II alveolar epithelial cells reduces surface tension in aveoli Prevents collapse of alveoli during lung expansion and contraction effect on surface tension varies with alveolar surface area reduces pressure requires to inflate lungs

Question 46

law of laplace calculation analysis

Answer 46

as r falls, surfactant molecules crowded together, surface tension reduced. Smaller alveolus stabilised. Effect of surfactant on stability of alveoli Alveoli also stabilised by mechanical interactions between neighbouring alveoli. Prevent alveolar collapse

Question 47

Asthma and resistance

Answer 47

Convective gas flow in lungs much less efficient Gas flow slows to the molecular diffusion rate in the upper airway resulting in poor gas exchange in the respiratory acinus Gas fails to penetrate to distal regions of respiratory zone causing alveolar pCO2to rise Lung ceases to oxygenate Hb efficiently due to Reversal of proper alveolar

Question 48

overcome inspriation and expiration

Answer 48

inspiration require overcome elastic compotent and surface tension expiration and overcome airway and tissue resistance

Question 49

what is chemoreceptive inputs

Answer 49

Chemo-receptive inputs monitor plasma and cerebral spinal fluid composition to maintainventilatory homeostasis

Question 50

Dorsal Respiratory Group

Answer 50

DRG - inspiratory control , NTS and is dorsal to VRG site of information input, central chemoreceptors inpurt and premotor neuorns

Question 51

what is rostral , intermediate and caudal

Answer 51

Rostral - expiration control (botzinger) Intermedite - inspiration control mediated respiratory pattern generator caudal - expiration control

Question 52

cranil motorneuorns and controllong what

Answer 52

cranial motor neurones are important for opening/closing glottis, affecting upper airway diameter, flaring nostrils motorneurones controlling direct muscles of inspiration & expiration are therefore not the only ones active during breathing