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BS22001 Human Physiology and Pharmacology > Hard :( > Flashcards

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1
Q

what is ganglia

A

Ganglia is where axon meets another axon
this is where there is a collection of dendrites and allow collection of synapses

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2
Q

what is endogenous

A

Sometimes the neurotransmitter is the ANS is not caused by classic neurotransmitters but is caused by non adrengeric and non cholinergic transmission

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3
Q

Electrical stimulation of post ganagolic parasymapethic fibre to vessel

A

Acetylcholine and Nictonic oxide produce rapid relaxation
Vasoactive intestinal peptide can produce a slow delayed reponse

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4
Q

Electrical stimulation of post ganagolic symapethic fibre to vessel

A

ATP produce as a fast contraction in smooth muscle
Noradrenaline produces a moderately fast response
Neuropeptide Y produces a slow reponse

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5
Q

Potency

A

a adrenceptors -> noradrenaline -> adrenaline -> isoprenaline
B adrenoreceptors -> isoprenaline -> adrenaline -> noradrenaline

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6
Q

example of an antagonist

A

biceps branchii and brachilias are antgonist branchii and anceoneous

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7
Q

different muscles and examples

A

Axial muscle ~ trunk
Proximal muscle ~ Shoulders
Distal muscle ~ hands and feet

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8
Q

Upper motor units infuelnce

A

Upper motor units influence activity of lower motor units

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9
Q

Lower motor units
stimulate contraction
exit spinal cord
supply

A

Lower Motor units - neurons synapse to stimulate contraction allowing contraction from the spinal cord
exit spinal cord in spinal nerves - sensory and motor supply

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10
Q

Relationship between motor unit vs contraction

A

Increase Motor Units increase the force of contraction

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11
Q

Size Principle

A

Fixed order to recruit to increase activity - size principle

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12
Q

what does control of motor function involves

A

Control of motor function involves integration of sensory and motor inputs / outputs

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13
Q

what is extrafusal

A

Extrafusal - bulk of skeletal fibres which generate force and innverated by motor neuorns

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14
Q

what is intrafusal

A

Intrafusal - remaining specialised fibres - muscle spindles and are innverated by y motor neurons and sesnory afferent

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15
Q

What afferent have sesnory and motor afferent

A

Sensory and motor innervation is provided by la and II afferent

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16
Q

Muscle spindle sense chnages in what

A

Muscle spindle sense changes and respond to changes in muscle length to return skeletal muscle to resting state after they have been used

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17
Q

Mid Diastole

A

Ventricles contain most of the volume
atrial and ventricular pressures are low and aortic is high
Aortic and Pulmonary valves are closed

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18
Q

Late diastole

A

Late Diastole is the p wave and blood enters the ventricles from the atria
both atrial and ventricle is increased
aortic and pulmonary are clsoed

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19
Q

End Diastole and early systole

A

End Diastole and early systole - QRS ventricular depolarisation and ventricular rapidly increases and aortic is shut

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20
Q

Ejection Peroid

A

Ejection Period - blood is ejected into aorta and pulmonary
ventricular > Aterial
Aortic and Pulmonary is open

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21
Q

End of Ventricualr systole

A

End of ventricular systole - ventricular repolarisation Ventricular < Aortic
both Aortic and pulmonary are shut

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22
Q

Filling Peroid

A

Filling peroid - ventricualr volume increases
Ventricular < Atrial pressure
AV is open

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23
Q

First coincides

A

First coincides with the beginning of systole produced by closure of the AV valve

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24
Q

Second Coincides

A

Second begins with the onset of diastole - closure of the aortic and pulmonary valves

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25
strucrture of a scarmoere
Scarmoere consits of a single A band and two I band I band is only thin filament from 2 adjacent scarmoeres
26
Alkaline chain
Alkaline chain is stability and regulatory action for ATPase and activity of chain is regulated via phosphorylation by kinase
27
Ca modulate what
Ca modulates contraction and regulatory proteins rather than interacting directly with contractile proteins
28
Troponin moving to allow cross bridge cycle
Troponin I shift permitting tropomyosin molecule to move Troponin T tropomyosin is moved away from myosin binding site on actin
29
Transverse tubules
Transverse tubules action potential spread through muscle fibre Maximal muscle current to penetrate into fibre to separate myofibrils and transmission of action potential along transverse tubules
30
what is smooth muscle
Smooth Muscle - individual Muscle fibres are relatively small spindle shaped one nuclei
31
what is cardiac Muscle
Cardiac is individual muscle fibres are large cylindrical with many nuclei
32
What is skeletal muscle
Skeletal multi-nuclei individual muscle fibres are large elongated cylindrical
33
Tonic
Tonic is constanlty engaged and stronger reponses when stimualted by neurons that innervate them helps control spinters periodically and are individual neurons and have electrical isolation of cell
34
Phasic
Phasic operates together with small number of neurons that innervate a cell gap junction allowing coordinated contraction as they all communicate together
35
what are contractile protiens
contractile proteins are anchored in the cytoplasm on the cell membrane on dense bodies and dense plaques - net like structure
36
factors affecting striated muscles are stretch
factors affecting striated muscles are stretch and intracellular calcium
37
factors affecting smooth muscle cross-bridge
factors affecting smooth muscle cross-bridge are increased intracellular calcium, phosphorylation of MLCK and inhibition of myosin light chain phosphate
38
How do Ca leave the SR
Membrane bound Ca2+ ATPase and Na Ca2+ exchanger expel calcium from the cell and calcium is sequestered into stores by SR calcium ATPase
39
what is pharmochemical coupling
Pharmaochemical is the change in smooth muscle tone without a change in membrane potential and a production second messengers for contraction or relaxation (IP3 causing contraction and cAMP causing relaxation)
40
What is the electrochemical coupling
Electrochemical is the opening plasma membrane voltage activated L type Ca2+ channels and response to depolarisation with or without potential generation
41
Na Ca exchanger
Na Ca exchanger utilises the Na electrochemical graident to pump Ca out of the cell
42
Ca2+ ATPase
Ca2+ ATPase utilises ATP hydrolysis to actively pump Ca2+ out of the cell
43
SERCA Ca2+ ATPase
Ca2+ ATPase (SERCA) utilises ATP hydrolysis to actively pump Ca2+ ATPase
44
How does gas change state going into the alveolus
moves from gas phase in the avoleous into liquid that lines alveous so when gas is inhaled it mixes with gas inside the lung
45
how oxygen moves around the body
diffuses through blood gas barrier into the pulmonary vein into the heart and around the body and makes its way to the mitochondria where it is converted to water in the process of oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP
46
Branching has two consequences:
Increase surface area for gas exchange Dissipates resistance to airflow as airway diameter narrows towards the respiratory zone
47
number of airways increase what else increase
when the number of airways increases the number of cross sectional area increases and airflow resistance factor decreases
48
what is bulk flow
Bulk flow of gas into conductive zone is driven by difference is net pressure caused by expansion and relaxation of the chest cavity
49
how does gas moves
Gas will only move into the lung if we decrease the pressure of lungs as expands the chest pressure will go under atmospheric pressure and goes into the lungs due to decrease pressure gradient
50
what does relaxation for lung
relaxation put pressure on the walls of the avolei raising partial pressure above the atmospheric pressure so gas goes out the lung conversion
51
what is the sum of alveolar pressure
alveolar pressure is the sum of elastic recoil pressure and plural pressure
52
muscle movement expiration and inspiration
inspiration - upwards and outwards expiration - backwards and downwards
53
how does diffusion and convention work
Convention is gas movement through conducting airways diffusion is the gas exchange across the blood gas barrier in the alveolus
54
what is content and satuation
Content - is determined by the amount of Hb of O2 in blood saturation in the proportion = oxyhemoglobin / O2 carrying capacity of Hb
55
Dissociation curve
For the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve the p50 value gives PO2 required for half maximal Hb saturation Left shift = increase HbO2 affinity and reduced O2 offloading to tissues Right shift = decrease HbO2 affinity raised O2 offloading to tissues
56
what is the Bohr Effect
The amino terminus of the haemoglobin a subunit binds to the carboxy-terminal histidine in the b subunit this stabilises hb structure This interaction is pH and O2-sensitive Acidosis decreases pH favours ab subunit interaction and reduces the binding of O2 to heme
57
how can you carry CO2
Plasma Soluble CO2 and Bicarbonate Ion and Carbamino hemoglobin - carbonate reaction at N terminal amino acid groups of Hb a subunit
58
What is the calculation showing
Tells us that alveolar PO2 is significantly affected by amtopheric PO2 and arterial carbon dioxide If arterial PCO2s increases so alveolar PO2 decreases If RQ increases
59
Conserve pAO2 For climbers
Increasing breathing frequency - paCO2 decreases High carbohydrate diet Climb when barometric pressure high
60
Poor ventilation and good ventilation
Poor ventilation and large blood flow Reduce perfusion - hypoxia constricts pulmonary arterioles Good ventilation and poor blood flow Reduce ventilation - low CO2 constrict bronchioles
61
what is plueral sacs linked to
Pleural sac links elastic forces in the chest wall and lung
62
what is fluid filled
The pueral sac is a fluid fullied cavity which tethers the lung to the movement of the rib cage lierteral outer wall
63
the plueral cavity acts to oppose what
the pleural cavity acts to oppose elastic recoil of ribs tethers the lung to the thoracic wall holds to the lungs out and open and allows inspiratory movement
64
Aveolar pressure
Avolaolr pressure Inspire alveolar pressure decreases below atmospheric pressure End of inspiration the pressure equalises and goes to 0 Exhalation - increase in alveolar pressure which goes back to 0 at the end of the expiration
65
Compliance varies with lung Disease
Emphsema has a is higher than normal and fibrosis is lower than normal
66
Pulmonary compliance is produced by what
Pulmonary compliance is produce by elastin connective fibres and alveolar surface tension
67
surface tension in an alveolus resists stretch
surface tension in an alveolus resists stretch tends to become smaller and tends to recoil after stretch contributes to elastic recoil pressure
68
effect of air liquid interface on lung compliance
Inflating with liquid overcomes recoil effect by dissipating surface tension Lungs requires greater transpulmonary pressure to inflate with air in order to overcome surface tension + elastic recoil effect
69
the law of laplace
The law of laplace is the small diameter bubbles have higher surface tension than large diameter one variation in alveolar size would cause small alveoli to collapse into the other
70
What is the calculation of laplace
P = 2T / r Pressure = 2 x Surface tension / radius of bubble
71
Pulmonary surfactant
Pulmonary surfactant stabilised alveolar structure by reducing surface tension
72
effect of surfactant on the surface tension
Surfactant reduces tension by decreasing density of water molecules at air water interface Because the hydrophobic tail pulls the surfactant molecule upward the resultant vector is minimal
73
Redcues surface tension in alveoli to effect surface tension
Composed of DPPC packed around surfactant protiens AD secreted by type II alveolar epithelial cells Redcues surface tension in alveoli Prevent collapse of alveoli during lung expansion and contraction Reduces pressure required to infalte lungs Effect on surface tension varies with alveolar surface area
74
Laplace law as r fall stabilised by what
As r falls surfactant molecules croded together surface tension reduced smaller alveolous stabilises alveoli also stabilised by mechanical interactions between neighbouring alveoli prevents alveolar collpase
75
two specialised types of cardiac cell
There are two specialised types of cardiac cell contractile cells and autorhythmic cell
76
what is pacemaker acitvity
cardiac autorhythmic cell do not have a resting membrane potential - they display pacemaker activity
77
what is pacemaker potential
pacemaker potential is when an autorhythmic cell membrane slow drift to threshold
78
what initiate Action potential
Autorhythmic cells cyclically initiate APs which then spread through the heart to trigger contraction without any nervous stimulation
79
AV Node
AV forms only conducting pathways between atrial and bundle of his AV node introduces considerable delay to spread of excitation - allowing blood to move from the atria to the ventricles AV node has a latent power
80
what is cardiac output
Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per minute CO is the product of heart rate and stroke volume CO = HR x SV
81
What is stroke volume
stroke volume is the volume of blood ejected per contraction SV = EDV - ESV
82
How CO is controlled
CO is controlled according to physiological requirements via control of HR and SV and control of HR
83
The strength of cardiac muscle contraction and, accordingly SV can be graded by
The strength of cardiac muscle contraction and, accordingly SV can be graded by: 1. Varying the initial length of the cardiac muscle fibres, which in turn depends upon EDV(intrinsic control) 2. Varying the extent of sympathetic stimulation(extrinsic control)
84
The strength of cardiac muscle contraction and, accordingly SV can be graded by
The strength of cardiac muscle contraction and, accordingly SV can be graded by: 1. Varying the initial length of the cardiac muscle fibres, which in turn depends upon EDV(intrinsic control) 2. Varying the extent of sympathetic stimulation(extrinsic control)
85
Frank Starling Law
The heart normally pumps out during systole the volume of blood returned to it during diastole; increased venous return results in increased stroke volume
86
what is arteries
Arteries - low resistance vessels and acts as pressure reservoirs for maintaining blood flow between ventricular contraction
87
what is arterioles
Arterioles - major site of resistance to blood flow , responsible for the pattern of blood flow distribution and participate in the regulation of arterial blood pressure
88
what is flow
flow is always from a region of higher pressure to one of lower pressure pressure exerted by a fluid is often termed the hydrostatic pressure
89
what is resistance
Resistance is the measure of how difficult is for blood to flow between two points at any given pressure difference
90
what is teh calculation of blood flow
blood flow through vessels depends upon the pressure gradient and vascular resistance the driving force is the pressure generated by contraction of the heart F = ^P / R
91
resistance to blood flow depends upon 3 factors
resistance to blood flow depends upon 3 factors viscosity of the blood vessel length vessel radius
92
what is contraction adn relaxation
Contraction=decreased radius, increased resistance=decreased local blood flow =vasoconstriction Relaxation=increased radius, decreased resistance=increased local blood flow =vasodilation
93
two factors reponsible for vascular tone
Two factors are responsible for vascular tone myogenic activity sympathetic activity
94
what does chnage in contractility of arteriolar
Any change in contractility of arteriolar smoothmuscle will substantially change resistance to flow inthese vessels

BS22001 Human Physiology and Pharmacology (16 decks)

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