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Unit III Review Flashcards

1
Q

What does a spermatozoon bind to on the zone pellucida of the secondary oocyte

A

Sperm receptors

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2
Q

What is seminal fluid

A

The fluid component of semen (ionic and nutrient composition)

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3
Q

What is hypercapnia

A

Elevated levels of CO2

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4
Q

How does respiratory alkalosis develop

A

Hyperventilation which lowers CO2 levels too much

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5
Q

How much weight is gained by the fetus in the last trimester of pregnancy

A

Up to 7.05 lb

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6
Q

What is acid-base balance

A

When the production of hydrogen ions in your body is precisely offset by their loss. When acid–base balance exists, the pH of body fluids remains within normal limits.

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7
Q

What are the main events of the proliferation phase

A

Epithelial cells multiply and restore the uterine epithelium

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8
Q

What are alleles

A

The various forms of a gene

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9
Q

What percentage of the filtrate produced at the renal corpuscle is reabsorbed at the PCT

A

60-70 percent

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10
Q

What are the three germ layers called

A

Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

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11
Q

What are the renal thresholds for glucose and amino acids?

A

Glucose: 180 mg/dL

Amino acids: 65 mg/dL

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12
Q

What sperm count is considered infertile for a man

A

<20 million

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13
Q

What are the main structures of the nephron loop

A

Descending limb and ascending limb

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14
Q

What is the normal level of sodium gains and losses by the body in a day

A

48-144 mEq (1.1-3.3 g)

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15
Q

What is the chemical equation that shows the reaction between carbon dioxide and water

A

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3(-) + H(+)

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16
Q

(Chapter 28)

What are gametes

A

Male and female reproductive cells

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17
Q

What are the main differences between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons

A

The nephron loop of the cortical nephron is shorter.

The longer loop of the juxtamedullary nephron plays an important role in water conservation and the formation of concentrated urine.

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18
Q

Trace the path of sperm from the testes to the external urethral orifice

A

Testes, epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, membranous urethra, spongy urethra, external urethral orifice

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19
Q

How many secondary oocytes are ovulated in a typical female in the monthly cycle

A

Typically one

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20
Q

What period of time is referred to as the period of embryological development

A

First two months after fertilization

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21
Q

What are the causes of over-hydration

A
  • Drinking large volumes of water or infusion of a hypotonic solution
  • Inability to eliminate excess water in urine
  • Endocrine disorders, such as excessive ADH production
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22
Q

What are the main structures of the collecting system?

A

Collecting duct and Papillary duct

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23
Q

Explain how autoregulation maintains the GFR

A

Local blood flow regulation. Changes to the diameters of afferent arterioles, efferent arterioles, and glomerular capillaries maintain GFR

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24
Q

What is electrolyte balance

A

Electrolyte balance occurs when electrolyte gains equal electrolyte losses

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25
Q

What is another word for child birth

A

Parturition

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26
Q

What is the cellular trophoblast

A

The inner layer of the blastocyst

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27
Q

Name the three hormones that mediate physiological adjustments to fluid balance and electrolyte balance

A
  • ADH
  • Aldosterone
  • Natiuretic peptides (ANP and BNP)
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28
Q

What are the three important organic waste products that are formed in the body?

A

Urea, creatinine, uric acid

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29
Q

What is the difference between an Oocyte and an ovum

A

An ovum is a fertilized oocyte

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30
Q

What age does menopause typically take place

A

45-55

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31
Q

When does the embryonic heart start beating

A

The third week of development

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32
Q

What is gastrulation

A

The process by which a third layer forms between the superficial and deep layers

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33
Q

By which day of gestation is the blastocyst completely within the endometrium

A

Day 10

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34
Q

What is implantation

A

Begins when the blastocyst attaches to the endometrium of the uterus

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35
Q

What is placentation

A

Blood vessels form around the blastocyst and the placenta develops

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36
Q

What is the normal pH range of the ECF compartment

A

7.35 - 7.45

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37
Q

What is a fluid shift

A

A rapid water movement between the ECF and the ICF in response to an osmotic gradient

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38
Q

What is the most important event that takes place at the renal corpuscle

A

Filtration

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39
Q

What is genotype

A

The 46 chromosomes and their genes

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40
Q

What is spermiation

A

At spermiation, a spermatozoon loses its attachment to the nurse cell and enters the lumen of the seminiferous tubule

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41
Q

If you are in a state of over-hydration, how is homeostasis restored

A

ANP and BNP reduce thirst, and block ADH and Aldosterone release

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42
Q

What are the two major types of androgens

A

Testosterone, dihydrotestosterone

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43
Q

What is the function of placental prolactin

A

Facilitates the conversion from inactive to active status in the mammary glands

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44
Q

What is cryptorchidism

A

When one or both testes have not descended into the scrotum by the time of birth

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45
Q

What is the dividing line between spontaneous abortion and immature delivery

A

500g

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46
Q

What are homozygous traits

A

Receiving the same allele of a particular gene (AA, bb)

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47
Q

What are the main characteristics of the secretions of the seminal glands

A
  1. Higher concentrations of fructose
  2. Prostaglandins which can stimulate smooth muscle contractions
  3. Fibrinogen to form a semen clot in the vagina
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48
Q

What is glomerular filtration rate

A

The amount of filtrate the kidneys product each minute

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49
Q

Why are problems due to a lack of bicarbonate ions rare

A
  • Bodily fluids contain large reserves of HCO3-

- Kidneys can generate HCO3-

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50
Q

What are the triggers for renin release by the kidneys

A

Low renal BP

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51
Q

What is the weight of the fetus at the end of the first trimester

A

Approximately 14g

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52
Q

If you are in a state of dehydration, what triggers the activation of ADH

A

Osmoreceptors in the anterior hypothalamus

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53
Q

Beginning at the renal artery, list the sequence of blood vessels that blood has to flow through before the blood reaches the afferent arterioles

A

Renal arteries, segmental arteries, interlobar arteries, arcuate arteries, cortical radial arteries, (afferent arterioles)

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54
Q

What is embryogenesis

A

The body of the embryo and internal organs begin developing

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55
Q

What are the main events of the secretory phase

A

Uterine glands enlarge and accelerate their rate of secretion

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56
Q

What are the three sections of the urethra?

A

Prostatic urethra, membranous urethra, spongy urethra

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57
Q

Why are the chances of survival much greater for a fetus prematurely delivered in the third trimester

A

Most of the organ system become able to perform their normal functions without maternal assistance

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58
Q

How long does it usually take a spermatogonium to mature into a free spermatozoon

A

54 days (?)

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59
Q

What is fertilization

A

When the male and female gametes fuse

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60
Q

What causes metabolic alkalosis

A

Increase of HCO3, such as is associated with the production of HCl in the stomach

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61
Q

What stage of development is considered a fetus

A

9+ weeks

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62
Q

What is gestation

A

The time spent in prenatal development

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63
Q

What triggers the release of ANP and BNP

A

Released by cardiac muscle cells in response to abnormal stretching of the heart walls

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64
Q

If you are in a state of dehydration, what triggers the release of aldosterone

A

Aldosterone is secreted in response to increasing K+ or decreasing Na+ levels in the blood reaching the adrenal cortex, or in response to the activation of the renin–angiotensin-aldosterone system

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65
Q

What is cleavage? When does it begin? When does it end?

A

Sequence of cell divisions that begins immediately after fertilization, and ends when the blastocyst first contacts the uterine wall.

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66
Q

What is genetics

A

The study of the mechanisms responsible for inheritance

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67
Q

What is a locus

A

A gene’s position on a chromosome

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68
Q

What are heterozygous traits

A

Receiving different alleles for a single gene (Aa, Bb)

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69
Q

What period of time is referred to as the period of fetal development

A

Week 9 until birth

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70
Q

What is embryogenesis

A

The formation of a viable embryo

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71
Q

What is transport maximum

A

The concentration at which transport proteins become saturated

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72
Q

What are other causes of respiratory alkalosis

A
  1. Persons adapting to high altitudes, where the low P O2 promotes hyperventilation
  2. Patients on mechanical respirators
  3. Persons whose brain stem injuries render them incapable of responding to shifts in plasma CO2 concentrations.
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73
Q

What are the three types of estrogens

A

Estradiol, estrone, estriol

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74
Q

What are homologous chromosomes

A

The two members of each pair of chromosomes (AA, Bb, etc.)

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75
Q

List the hormones responsible for elevating calcium ion levels in the body

A

Parathyroid hormone, Calcitriol

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76
Q

What are the roles of progesterone and estrogens during pregnancy

A

Progesterone maintains the endometrial lining to continue pregnancy.

Estrogen stimulates labor and delivery

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77
Q

What is organogenesis

A

The process of organ formation

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78
Q

List the homeostatic functions of the urinary system

A

Regulate volume and solute concentration of blood

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79
Q

What is hypertonicity

A

If the osmotic concentration of the ECF increases, that fluid will become hypertonic with respect to the ICF. Water will then move from the cells into the ECF until osmotic equilibrium is restored.

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80
Q

What are the common causes of hyperventilation

A

Physical stresses such as pain, or psychological stresses such as extreme anxiety

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81
Q

What are the three mechanisms used by the body to stabilize the GFR

A

Autoregulation, hormonal regulation, autonomic regulation

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82
Q

What is the second trimester and what are the major events that take place during this period

A

Dominated by the development on organs and organ systems. By the end of this trimester, the fetus looks distinctly human.

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83
Q

What are the major events of the dilation stage

A

Begins with the inset of true labor, the cervix dilates and the fetus begins to shift forward

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84
Q

What is the primary role of the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system

A

Prevent changes in pH caused by organic acids and fixed acids in the ECF

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85
Q

List the various hormones that are synthesized by the placenta

A

Human chorionic gonadotropin, human placental lactogen, placental prolactin, relaxin, progesterone, and estrogens

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86
Q

When does acidosis develop

A

It develops when the normal plasma buffer mechanisms are stressed by excessive hydrogen ions

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87
Q

What are the main events that take place during menses

A

Degeneration and shedding of the functional zone

88
Q

What is differentiation

A

The formation of the different types of cells necessary for development

89
Q

What is the weight of the fetus at the end of the second trimester

A

1.32 lb

90
Q

Where is the majority of calcium stored in the body

A

99% stored in the skeleton

91
Q

Follicle cells thicken and are called _____

A

Granulosa cells

92
Q

Why does the maintenance of acid-base balance have to include respiratory and renal mechanisms?

A

Buffer systems only render H+ harmless, but CO2 needs to be breathed out, and other fluids need to be secreted in urine

93
Q

What is codominance

A

Ao + Bo resulting in AB blood type

94
Q

What is a blastomere

A

Identical cells produced during cleavage

95
Q

What is a normal sperm count

A

20-100 million

96
Q

How is sodium lost from the body

A

Eliminated in urine and sweat

97
Q

What is intracellular fluid

A

Cytosol

98
Q

How do red blood cells affect the pH of the ECF compartment

A

RBCs absorb CO2 and convert it to H2CO3 (Carbonic Acid)

99
Q

What are the three main functions of the ovaries

A
  1. Produce oocytes
  2. Secrete female sex hormones
  3. Secrete inhibin
100
Q

How much calcium does an adult need to consume daily to maintain calcium homeostasis

A

0.8-1.2 g

101
Q

(Chapter 27)

What is extracellular fluid

A

Interstitial fluid, plasma, and other bodily fluids

102
Q

What is cleavage

A

Sequence of cell divisions that occurs immediately after fertilization

103
Q

What is the trimester and what are the major events that take place during this period

A

Early in the third trimester, most of the organ systems are fully functional. Third trimester characterized by rapid growth and disposition of adipose tissue

104
Q

What circumstances can lead to prolonged disturbances of acid-base balance

A

Renal/respiratory malfunction, CNS damage, cardiovascular damage

105
Q

What are the three major functions of the urinary system?

A
  1. Excretion
  2. Elimination
  3. Homeostatic regulation
106
Q

What are the three processes in spermatogenesis

A

Mitosis, Meiosis, Spermiogenesis

107
Q

What are the functions of relaxin

A
  • Increases flexibility of the pubic symphysis
  • Causes cervix to dilate
  • Suppresses release of oxytocin, delays labor
108
Q

What is the general minimum birth weight for premature delivery

A

1kg

109
Q

What are examples of the three general categories of acids in the body

A

Fixed acid: Sulfuric acid
Organic acid: Lactic acid
Volatile acid: Carbonic acid

110
Q

(Chapter 29)

What is development

A

The gradual modification of anatomical structures and physiological characteristics during the period from fertilization to maturity

111
Q

Which fluid compartment holds most of our body water? Why?

A

2/3 of body water is in intracellular fluid

112
Q

What are the effects of acidosis on the nervous system and cardiovascular system

A
  • Nervous system function deteriorates and coma may occur

- Cardiac contractions become weak and irregular, signs and symptoms of heart failure might develop

113
Q

What is acidosis

A

pH below 7.35

114
Q

How is the amniotic cavity formed

A

The inner cell mast separates and gradually forms the amniotic cavity

115
Q

List the different types of edema and briefly explain how they occur

A

Pulmonary edema - increased pressure in pulmonary capillaries

Generalized edema - decrease in blood colloid osmotic pressure

Localized edema - can result from damage to capillary walls (as in bruising), the constriction of regional venous circulation, or a blockage of the lymphatic drainage

116
Q

What is the first trimester and what are the major events that take place during this period

A

Embryonic and early fetal development. The beginnings of all major organ systems appear

117
Q

Give an example of incomplete dominance

A

Sickle cell anemia that doesn’t show up unless PO2 levels go down

118
Q

What is capacitation

A

The process which allows spermatozoa to “swim”

119
Q

List the three major causes of metabolic acidosis

A
  1. Production of large number of fixed or organic acids
  2. Impaired ability to excrete H+ by the kidneys
  3. Severe HCO3 loss
120
Q

What is the main function of the seminiferous tubules

A

Sperm production takes place in the seminiferous tubules

121
Q

Which two organ systems play an important role in eliminating hydrogen ions from the body

A

Kidneys and lungs

122
Q

When is the first cleavage division completed

A

Approximately 30 hours after fertilization

123
Q

What are the important events that take place in meiosis I

A

The primary spermatocyte divides into two secondary spermatocytes with 23 haploid pairs of chromosomes

124
Q

Why does prolonged aldosterone stimulation lead to hypokalemia

A

Countertransport of K+ and Na+ (K+ is secreted while Na+ is being reabsorbed) results in lowered K+ levels in bodily fluids

125
Q

What are the major events of the expulsion stage

A

Cervical dilates to 10cm, contractions reach maximum intensity, continues until the fetus has emerged from the vagina

126
Q

Where are the testes located during fetal development

A

Adjacent to the kidneys

127
Q

What are gonads

A

Reproductive organs that produce gametes and hormones

128
Q

What are the functions of hPL

A

(Human Placental Lactogen) Prepares the mammary glands for milk production

129
Q

What are the products of the testes

A

Sex hormones called androgens, including testosterone

130
Q

What accounts for colloid osmotic pressure

A

Glomerular damage can result in plasma proteins entering the capsular space and cause a capsular colloid osmotic pressure

131
Q

What is a characteristic of strong acids and strong bases

A

Dissociate completely in solution

132
Q

What are the three triggers for the release of renin by the juxtaglomerular complex

A
  • Decreased BP at glomerulus
  • Sympathetic innervation of juxtaglomerular cells
  • Decrease in osmotic concentration at macula densa
133
Q

What are autosomal chromosomes

A

22 pairs of chromosomes - all except the sex chromosomes

134
Q

What accounts for a higher water content in males versus females

A

The proportionately larger mass of adipose tissue in adult females, and the greater average muscle mass in adult males (muscle contains 75% water, adipose tissue contains 10%)

135
Q

What is reabsorbed and secreted at the collecting system? How does it occur?

A

Alpha-intercalated cells secrete hydrogen ions and reabsorb bicarbonate ions

Beta-intercalated cells secrete bicarbonate ions and reabsorb hydrogen ions

Principal cells are cuboidal cells that reabsorb water and secrete potassium.

(Together, these cells regulate the acid–base balance in the blood)

136
Q

What are buffers

A

Dissolved compounds that stabilize the pH of a solution by adding or removing H+

137
Q

What stage of development is considered an embryo

A

0-8 weeks

138
Q

What percentage of the fluid volume that enters the renal corpuscle reaches the DCT

A

15-20 percent of the initial filtrate volume

139
Q

Where in the nephron loop is water reabsorbed? How is it reabsorbed?

A

Descending limb is water-permeable

Ascending limb is impermeable to water

140
Q

Why are patients who undergo vasectomies not considered sterile for several weeks

A

Sperm can take a few weeks to clear out of the ductus deferens

141
Q

What is the average number of spermatozoa that reaches the secondary oocyte

A

Fewer than 100 reach the isthmus

142
Q

When does oogenesis begin and end

A

Begins before birth, accelerates during puberty, and ends at menopause

143
Q

What is a blastocyst

A

Cleavage produces two identical blastomeres, and the blastomeres form a blastocyst, a hollow ball.

144
Q

What are the major solutes that are reabsorbed at the PCT

A

Na+ and glucose co-transported, water, amino acids, K+, phosphate

145
Q

What is polyspermy

A

Fertilization by more than one sperm

146
Q

What are the characteristics of the secretions of the bulbo-urethral glands

A

Thick, alkaline mucus to neutralize any remaining urinary acids

147
Q

What are the major events of reabsorption that take place at the PCT

A
  1. Reabsorption of more than 99% of organic nutrients
  2. Active reabsorption of ions
  3. Reabsorption of water as solutes leave the PCT and enter surrounding fluid
  4. Passive reabsorption of water
    (5. Active secretion of H+ ions)
148
Q

Why are dozens of spermatozoa needed to contact the secondary oocyte even though only one spermatozoon can fertilize a secondary oocyte

A

one sperm does not contain enough acrosomal enzymes to disrupt the corona radiata

149
Q

What is menarche

A

The first cycle of the uterine cycle, begins at puberty and ends at menopause

150
Q

What is alkalosis

A

pH above 7.45

151
Q

Why are homeostatic mechanisms that monitor and adjust the composition of body fluids more responsive to changes in the ECF than ICF

A

ICF, intracellular fluid, is isolated from the rest of the body by the plasma membrane

152
Q

What are the major events of the placental stage

A

The uterus begins to decrease in size, which tears the bonds between the placenta and the uterine wall, resulting in the ejection of the placenta

153
Q

What is the normal level of potassium gains and losses by the body in a day

A

50-150 mEq (1.9-5.8 g)

154
Q

List the three limitations of the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system

A
  1. It cannot protect the ECF from changes in pH that result from increased or decreased levels of CO2 . A buffer system cannot protect against changes in the concentration of its own weak acid.
  2. It can function only when the respiratory system and the respiratory control centers are working normally.
  3. The ability to buffer acids is limited by the availability of bicarbonate ions.
155
Q

Which layer of the endometrium undergoes changes on a regular basis due to the menstrual cycle

A

The functional zone

156
Q

What are teratogens

A

Factors that result in abnormal development

157
Q

What are the effects of ADH release?

A
  • Stimulates reabsorption of water at the kidneys

- Stimulates hypothalamic thirst center

158
Q

What is spermiogenesis

A

The last step of spermatogenesis, each spermatids matures into a single sperm

159
Q

What is premature labor

A

When true labor begins before the fetus has completed development

160
Q

When does respiratory acidosis develop

A

When the respiratory system can’t expel all the CO2 produced by the peripheral tissues

161
Q

What are the three general categories of acids in the body

A

Fixed, organic, volatile

162
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes are contained in every somatic cell

A

23 pairs

163
Q

List the three factors that influence the tubular secretion of potassium ions

A
  • Changes in K+ concentration of ECF
  • Changes in pH (lower pH causes Na+ to be exchanged for H+, instead of K+)
  • Aldosterone levels
164
Q

What is renal threshold

A

The plasma concentration at which a specific substance or ion begins to appear in urine. Transport maximum determines renal threshold.

165
Q

What is the main mechanism by which water is transported across cell membranes

A

Osmotic gradients established by the movement of ions (“Water follows salt”)

166
Q

What is a typical volume of semen that is released during ejaculation

A

2-5 mL

167
Q

List the hormone that is responsible for reducing calcium ion levels in the body

A

Calcitonin

168
Q

What is the epididymis

A

It stores and protects spermatozoa and facilitates their functional maturation

169
Q

What is phenotype

A

Anatomical and physical characteristics (as a result of your genes)

170
Q

List the four major types of carrier-mediated transport

A

Facilitated diffusion, active transport, cotransport, countertransport

171
Q

What are the main functions of hCG

A

Similar to LH, maintains the integrity of the corpus luteum and promotes the continued secretion of progesterone

172
Q

If you are exercising vigorously and are losing body water at a high rate through sweating, what will happen to the osmotic concentration of your ECF compartment? How does this affect the ICF compartment?

A

The osmotic concentration of the ECF increases, causing water to flow out of the ICF into the ECF. Since ICF accounts for 2/3 of body water, the loss is not extremely significant at first.

173
Q

What type of blood flows in the umbilical arteries and umbilical veins

A

Blood flows from the fetus to the placenta through paired umbilical arteries and returns in a single umbilical vein

174
Q

How is carbonic acid classified

A

H2CO3 is a weak acid

175
Q

What is a secondary oocyte that is fertilized called

A

Zygote

176
Q

What are the four general processes of the first trimester

A
  1. Cleavage
  2. Implantation
  3. Placentation
  4. Embryogenesis
177
Q

What is renal compensation

A

Changes in the rates of H+ or HCO3- secretion and absorption by the kidneys

178
Q

Why does repeated vomiting and diarrhea often lead to hypernatremia

A

Significant water loss leads to more concentration of ions in bodily fluids

179
Q

What is the normal course of events that takes place after a person consumes too much water

A

A fluid shift will occur, water will move from the ECF to the ICF and both will have increased volumes and lowered osmotic concentrations. Normally, this will block the release of ADH and increase water loss in urine.

180
Q

What accounts for glomerular hydrostatic pressure

A

The EFFERENT arteriole’s smaller size creates increased pressure in the glomerulus

181
Q

Which gland in females contributes the greatest volume of mucous to lubricate the vagina

A

Greater vestibular

182
Q

What is amenorrhea

A

When menarche doesn’t appear by age 16, or if the uterine cycle is interrupted for six months or more

183
Q

Why does respiratory acidosis lead to metabolic acidosis

A

Oxygen-starved tissues generate large quantities of lactic acid, and sustained hypoventilation leads to decreased arterial PO2

184
Q

What is the role of interstitial cells

A

Produce androgens (hormones including testosterone)

185
Q

What is penetrance

A

Percentage of individuals with a certain genotype that actually show the expected phenotype (Not all women with the breast cancer gene actually develop breast cancer)

186
Q

What is expressivity

A

The extent to which a certain allele is expressed

187
Q

What is net filtration pressure

A

The difference between the net hydrostatic pressure and the blood colloid osmotic pressure acting across the glomerular capillaries

188
Q

What is a trophoblast

A

The outer layer of cells of a blastocyst

189
Q

What is the prenatal period of development

A

Embryonic development + fetal development

190
Q

What is reabsorption?

A

The removal of water and solutes from the filtrate, and their movement from tubular fluid to peritubular fluid

191
Q

Where in the uterine tube does fertilization usually occur

A

Fertilization typically takes place near the junction between the ampulla and isthmus of the uterine tube

192
Q

What structures are enclosed by the spermatic cord

A

The ductus deferens and the blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels that supply the testes

193
Q

What is the role of the enzyme hyaluronidase in fertilization

A

Released by spermatazoa to break the bonds between follicle cells so a sperm can reach the oocyte

194
Q

What is the syncytial trophoblast

A

The outer layer of the blastocyst

195
Q

Why is a deviation from normal pH values considered dangerous

A

Changes in H+ concentrations disrupt the stability of plasma membranes, alter the structure of proteins, and change the activities of important enzymes

196
Q

What are the functions of the uterus

A

Protect, nourish, and remove wastes for the developing fetus

197
Q

All gonadal steroids are derived from which lipid

A

Cholesterol

198
Q

What is the contribution of the seminal gland to the total volume of semen

A

60 percent

199
Q

What is fluid balance

A

Fluid balance is reached when water gain equals water loss

200
Q

How is sodium absorbed from the digestive tract

A

Diffusion and carrier-mediated transport

201
Q

What is menopause

A

Termination of the uterine cycle

202
Q

What is the inner cell mass

A

A group of cells clustered to one side of the blastocyst

203
Q

What is transported out of the DCT? How are these molecules transported?

A

ADH and Aldosterone facilitate active reabsorption of H2O and Na+, respectively. Ca+ is also selectively reabsorbed.

Note: K+ secretion results from active Na+ reabsorption

204
Q

What are the important events that take place in meiosis II

A

The secondary spermatocytes divide into four haploid spermatids

205
Q

What are the major solutes reabsorbed at the nephron loop? Where does this occur?

A

Descending limb: Impermeable to solutes

Ascending limb: Na+ and Cl- can diffuse across thin portion, and actively transported across thick portion (counter current multiplication creates a concentration gradient)

206
Q

What are the most important events that take place in Mitosis

A

Duplication of the spermatogonium, and creation of one primary spermatocyte, and one spermatogonium with 46 chromosomes

207
Q

What is the postnatal period of development

A

Birth through maturity

208
Q

What is secretion?

A

The transport of solutes from the peritubular fluid to the tubular fluid

209
Q

What is the difference between diploid and haploid cells

A

Diploid contain complete pairs of chromosomes, from both father and mother

Haploid contain pairs of only half of the chromosomes

210
Q

What is the role of the darts and cremaster muscles in ensuring viable sperm production

A

The cremaster and dartos muscles relax or contract to move the testes away from or toward the body as needed to maintain acceptable testicular temperatures (1.1C or 2F lower than body temperatures)

211
Q

What are nurse cells

A

Contained in the seminiferous tubules, they provide a microenvironment that supports spermatogenesis

212
Q

What is the effect of sympathetic innervation at the kidneys

A

(1) adjusts rates of urine formation by changing blood flow and blood pressure at the nephron
(2) stimulates the release of renin, which ultimately restricts water and salt loss in the urine by stimulating reabsorption by the nephron

213
Q

What is a karyotype

A

The entire set of chromosomes

214
Q

What causes water to move out of plasma and go into the interstitial spaces in tissues

A

Capillary hydrostatic pressure

215
Q

What is inheritance

A

The transfer of genetic characteristics from generation to generation

216
Q

Explain the countercurrent multiplication system at the nephron loop

A

As Na+ and Cl- are transported out of the thick ascending limb, a concentration gradient is created in the peritubular fluid. This concentration gradient results in the movement of water out of the descending limb.

217
Q

How does respiratory compensation help stabilize the pH of ECF

A

Respiratory compensation can raise or lower CO2 to affect the Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate buffer system

Advanced A&P (12 decks)

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