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HEAL1500 > UNIT 8 - LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS > Flashcards

UNIT 8 - LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS Flashcards

1
Q

why do we need an immune system?

A

-defense against infections + tumors

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2
Q

what happens if the immune system does not work correctly?

A

-self cells can become injured
-inflammation can be induced

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3
Q

what are the good characteristics of our immune system?

A

-knows when to respond
-responds quickly to all potential pathogens (new and old)
-has an appropriate/effective response
-has memory in some cases

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4
Q

what are the aspects of an appropriate/effective immune response?

A

-targets foreign pathogens specifically
-no surrounding injury to self cells
-redundancy (back ups)
-diversity (changes tactics)
-regulation

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5
Q

what is an example of immunological memory?

A

-vaccines
-familiarizes the body
-increases memory
-increases repertoire

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6
Q

what are the 3 questions the immune system asks before responding?

A

-is it foreign?
-self or non-self
-is it dangerous?
-food is foreign but not dangerous
-clinical challenge?
-organ transplantation

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7
Q

what are the two branches of the immune system?

A

-innate immune system
-adaptive immune system

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8
Q

what are the functions of the lymphatic system?

A

-lymphatic capillaries absorb excess interstitial fluid and return it to the bloodstream
-lacteals (special lymph capillaries) in the small intestine absorb fats and transport them to the bloodstream
-helps in pathogen defense
-produces, maintains, and distributes lymphocytes in the body

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9
Q

what does the lymphatic system consist of?

A

-lymphatic vessels, organs, and fluids

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10
Q

what is carried within the lymphatic vessels?

A

-lymph

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11
Q

what are the beginning lymphatic vessels?

A

-blind-ended capillaries in tissues

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12
Q

what are the 2 lymphatic ducts?

A

-thoracic duct
-right lymphatic duct

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13
Q

where does the thoracic duct collect lymph from? where does it empty into?

A

-below the thorax (chest), left arm, left side of head and neck
-left subclavian vein

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14
Q

where does the right lymphatic duct collect lymph from? where does it empty into?

A

-the right arm, right side of head and neck
-right subclavian vein

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15
Q

how are the larger lymphatic vessels similar to veins?

A

-contain valves to prevent lymph from flowing backwards

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16
Q

what does the movement of lymph depend on?

A

-muscle contraction

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17
Q

what are the primary lymphoid organs?

A

-red bone marrow
-thymus

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18
Q

what are the secondary lymphoid organs?

A

-lymph nodes
-lymphatic nodules
-spleen
-tonsils
-peyers patches

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19
Q

what is the red bone marrow?

A

-site of blood cell production (produces 200 million daily)
-site of B lymphocyte maturation

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20
Q

what is the difference in red bone marrow in children and adults?

A

-most bones in children have red bone marrow
-only a few do in adults
-half of it is converted into yellow bone marrow by age seven

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21
Q

how much does red bone marrow weigh in adults?

A

-2.7Kg

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22
Q

what happens to the yellow bone marrow during emergencies?

A

-body converts yellow bone marrow to red
-to help keep you alive

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23
Q

what is the thymus?

A

-bilobed organ (2 lobes)
-produces thymosin
-site of T lymphocyte maturation (move from the red bone marrow)

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24
Q

what is the function of thymosin?

A

-induces T lymphocyte maturation

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25
Q

where is the thymus located?

A

-in the thoracic cavity
-superior to the heart

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26
Q

what happens to the thymus as you age?

A

-shrinks
-largest in children

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27
Q

where are the lymph nodes found? what areas are they commonly within? what is their purpose?

A

-along lymphatic vessels
-neck, armpit, and groin
-filter lymph

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28
Q

what are contained within lymph nodes? what divides the lymph node into compartments?

A

-macrophages that engulf pathogens and debris (innate)
-lymphocytes to fight infections and cancer cells (adaptive)
-CT forms a capsule around it and divides it

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29
Q

how are lymph nodes named?

A

-for their location

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30
Q

what are lymphatic nodules?

A

-concentrations of lymphoid tissue
-do not have a capsule (differ from nodes)

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31
Q

where are the tonsils located?

A

-the pharynx

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32
Q

what is the function of tonsils?

A

-fight infections that come through the nose and mouth

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33
Q

where are peyer’s patches found?

A

-in the intestinal walls and the appendix

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34
Q

what is the function of peyer’s patches?

A

-fight infections that come through the digestive tract

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35
Q

where is the spleen located?

A

-upper left region of the abdominal cavity

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36
Q

what is the function of the spleen?

A

-filter blood for pathogens
-removes dead/end of life blood cells
-percolation

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37
Q

what divides the spleen? what does it divide into?

A

-CT divides it into white pulp and red pulp

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38
Q

what is contained within white pulp?

A

-macrophages
-removes pathogens, debris, worn-out red blood cells

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39
Q

what is contained within red pulp?

A

-lymphocytes
-interact with antigens and antigen presenting cells

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40
Q

what surrounds the spleen? what make occur?

A

-a thin outer capsule
-could rupture from trauma

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41
Q

what is the basis of the innate immune system?

A

-fully functional without previous exposure to a pathogen
-no memory

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42
Q

what is the basis of the adaptive immune system?

A

-initiated when exposed to a pathogen
-typically the innate immune system that exposes the pathogen

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43
Q

what are the main assets of the innate immune system?

A

-recognizes pathogens based on danger signals
-rapid responder (minutes-hours)
-diverse and intense
-helps generate an adaptive immune response when needed (calls immune cells to the site of infection and programs them with functions)

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44
Q

what are the main downfalls of the innate immune system?

A

-no adaptability (ex: new variants that may evolve to resist innate immunity)
-no memory (same speed, type, and intensity for the 1st exposure or 10th exposure)

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45
Q

what is the main goal of the innate immune system?

A

-contain the pathogen in the initial hours and days of infection
-gives time for a sophisticated, diverse, and specific defense to be deployed (adaptive immune system)

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46
Q

how does the innate immune system work with the adaptive immune system?

A

-directs the type of specific immune response
-instructs the adaptive immune system

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47
Q

what are the types of defenses within the innate immune system?

A

-physical and chemical barriers
-cells and inflammatory response
-protective proteins “complement”

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48
Q

what is an example of a physical barrier?

A

-epithelial linings of the airway, GI tract, etc
-covers all exposed body surfaces (inside and out)

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49
Q

what systems have epithelial linings located within the internal cavities?

A

-digestive system
-respiratory system
-cardiovascular system
-genitourinary system (urinary and reproductive)

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50
Q

what is an example of an outer epithelial lining? how does it act for the innate immune system?

A

-skin
-has lots of keratin (tough)
-exfoliation of the skin will carry microbes away from the body

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51
Q

what is an example of something within the intestinal epithelium that provides protection against microbes?

A

-paneth cells
-produce antimicrobial peptides and lectins

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52
Q

what is an example of something within the respiratory system that acts as a barrier within the epithelium?

A

-goblet cells in the epithelial lining secrete mucus
-traps particles larger than 2 micrometers
-have cilia to sweep away mucus with pathogens entrapped

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53
Q

what is the “mucociliary escalator”?

A

-removes pathogens away from the respiratory tract
-cilia propel mucus upward in the bronchi to eliminate microorganisms

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54
Q

what can slow the mucociliary escalator?

A

-anesthetics
-air pollutants
-tobacco smoke
-some viral and bacterial infections

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55
Q

what are examples of chemical barriers?

A

-low pH in the gastrointestinal tract and vagina
-acidic pH of the stomach
-sebum
-acidic secretions from sebaceous glands
-lysozyme in tears and saliva
-normal flora

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56
Q

how does the low pH in the gastrointestinal tract and vagina work as a chemical barrier?

A

-works along with normal flora
-prevents infection of potentially dangerous microbes

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57
Q

how does the acidic pH of the stomach work as a chemical barrier?

A

-inhibits or kills bacteria

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58
Q

how does sebum work as a chemical barrier?

A

-creates an undesirable environment for pathogens

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59
Q

how do acidic secretions of the sebaceous glands work as a chemical barrier?

A

-weaken and kill bacteria on the skin

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60
Q

what is lysozyme?

A

-antibacterial product in tears and saliva
-protective

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61
Q

what is normal flora? how does normal flora work as a chemical barrier?

A

-microbes (typically within the mouth and intestine) (good bacteria)
-prevents potential pathogens from residence

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62
Q

what can chronic use of antibiotics cause?

A

-can become susceptible to infection by killing off normal flora

63
Q

what are the cells within the innate immune system?

A

-employs neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells to engulf pathogens (antigen-presenting cells)

64
Q

what is a response/process within the innate immune system?

A

-inflammatory response

65
Q

what is the basis of the inflammatory response?

A

-response of vascularized tissues to infections and damaged tissues
-brings cells and molecules from circulation to the infection site to eliminate offending agents
-protective response

66
Q

how does the innate immune system recognize pathogens?

A

-can recognize families of antigens
-known as P/MAMPS (pathogen/microbe associated molecular patterns)
-patterns shared by various classes of pathogens
-patterns are not normally present on self cells

67
Q

what is a pro of the innate immune systems strategy for recognizing pathogens?

A

-less than 1000 microbial patterns

68
Q

what is a con of the innate immune systems strategy for recognizing pathogens?

A

-lymphocytes within the adaptive immune system express receptors for a billion different antigens
-more widespread and specific

69
Q

what are the cardinal signs of the inflammatory response?

A

-heat
-pain
-redness
-swelling

70
Q

what are the 3 components of acute inflammation?

A

-dilation of small vessels to increase blood flow
-increased microvasculature permeability (plasma proteins and WBC to leave circulation)
-migration of leukocytes from the microcirculation (accumulate in the focus of injury + activation to eliminate the offending agent)

71
Q

what are the responses of the inflammatory response?

A

-chemicals like histamine are released by damaged tissue cells and mast cells (capillaries dilate and are more permeable and more blood flow)
-increased permeability = fluids and proteins escape into tissues
-excess fluid in tissues (swelling) presses on nerve endings (pain)
-excess blood flow causes skin to become red and warm
-increased temp inhibits the growth of pathogens
-increased blood flow brings white blood cells to the area
-blood clotting prevents blood loss

72
Q

what are soluble factors?

A

-produced by various cells or derived from plasma proteins
-generated or activated in response to the inflammatory stimulus

73
Q

what do microbes and necrotic cells trigger? how does this shape the inflammatory response?

A

-inflammatory mediators
-elicits and amplifies the inflammation
-determines its pattern, severity, and clinical and pathologic manifestations

74
Q

what are cytokines?

A

-proteins produced by many cell types (lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, endothelial, epithelial, connective tissue cells)
-induce local and systemic effects
-ex: interferons, interleukin, and TNF

75
Q

what is the purpose of interferons?

A

-proteins produced by cells that are infected with viruses
-act as a warning
-bind to receptors of noninfected cells causing them to produce substances that interfere with viral replication

76
Q

what is the purpose of interleukin and TNF?

A

-mediate and regulate immune and inflammatory reactions

77
Q

what are the 4 steps to the inflammatory response?

A

-injured tissue cells and mast cells release histamine causing capillaries to dilate and increase blood flow
-neutrophils first phagocytize pathogens to localize the infection and prevent spread, if overwhelmed they release cytokines to attract more WBCs
-antigen presenting cells will capture and present the antigen to B and T cells
-monocytes come to the area after and become macrophages
-blood clotting walls off the capillary and prevents blood loss

78
Q

what are examples of antigen-presenting cells? what do they do?

A

-macrophages
-dendritic cells
-capture and present the antigen to B and T cells

79
Q

what is the complement system?

A

-collection of soluble proteins and membrane receptors
-designated by the letter C and a #
-function mainly in host defense against microbes and pathologic inflammatory reactions
-amplify the inflammatory response
-bind to mast cells (trigger histamine release)
-attract phagocytes to the infection site
-form a membrane attack complex to produce holes in bacterias surface (fluids enter the cells and burst)

80
Q

which complement protein cleavages?

A

-C3
-into C3a and C3b

81
Q

when does the adaptive immune system come into play?

A

-when innate defenses have failed to prevent an infection

82
Q

what can be considered antigens?

A

-abnormal plasma proteins produced by cancer cells
-parasitic worms
-bacteria
-viruses
-molds

83
Q

what does the adaptive immune system depend on?

A

-the action of B cells and T cells

84
Q

what are found on B cells and T cells?

A

-specific antigen receptors
-each has only one type of receptor
-receptor and antigen fit together

85
Q

how can an antigen be presented to the receptor?

A

-by a cell
-detected within fluid

86
Q

what are the 2 pathways of adaptive immunity?

A

-cell mediated immunity
-antibody mediated immunity

87
Q

how does cell-mediated immunity work?

A

-T cells kill cells that present a specific foreign antigen

88
Q

how does antibody-mediated immunity work?

A

-B cells produce antibodies that bind to free antigens in body fluids

89
Q

what is the basic structure of an antibody?

A

-Y shaped protein with 2 arms
-2 chains per arm
-can be single molecules (monomers) or paired in dimers, or pentamers (5 molecules)
-joining section is the J chain

90
Q

what are the 2 chains that make each antibody arm? what is found on each type of chain?

A

-heavy/long polypeptide chain
-light/short polypeptide chain
-constant region
-variable region

91
Q

what is the constant region?

A

-at the trunk of the Y-shape
-where the sequence of amino acids is fixed
-its structure classifies antibodies

92
Q

what is the variable region?

A

-forms the antigen binding site
-shape is specific to each antigen

93
Q

what is the process of neutralization?

A

-antibodies coat viruses and toxins
-neutralizes them and removing the threat

94
Q

what is an immune complex?

A

-a clump of antigens combined with antibodies

95
Q

what are the 5 classes of circulating antibodies?

A

-IgG
-IgM
-IgA
-IgD
-IgE

96
Q

where is the IgA class of antibodies found?

A

-in secretions such as saliva and breast milk
-present at the mucosa level

97
Q

what is the function of the IgA class of antibodies?

A

-prevents pathogens from attaching to epithelial cells in digestive and respiratory tracts

98
Q

where is the IgD class of antibodies found?

A

-on the surface of immature B cells

99
Q

what is the function of the IgD class of antibodies?

A

-signifies readiness of a B cell

100
Q

where is the IgE class of antibodies found?

A

-antigen receptor on mast cells in tissues

101
Q

what is the function of the IgE class of antibodies?

A

-immediate allergic response
-protection against certain parasitic worms

102
Q

where is the IgG class of antibodies found?

A

-in circulation
-crosses the placenta from mother to fetus

103
Q

what is the function of the IgG class of antibodies?

A

-binds to pathogens
-activates the protein complement
-enhances phagocytosis by WBCs

104
Q

where is the IgM class of antibodies found? what is special about it?

A

-in circulation
-largest antibody
-first antibody formed by a newborn
-first antibody formed with any new infection
-first antibody to disappear when the infection is over

105
Q

what is the function of the IgM class of antibodies?

A

-activates the protein complement
-clumps cells

106
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies?

A

-can be produced in the lab and used for medical tests and treatments
-produced by a single plasma cell derived from the same B cell
-they will be identical

107
Q

what occurs if neutrophils die off in significant quantaties?

A

-become a yellow-white substance called pus

108
Q

what are B-cell receptors (BCR)? what binds to them?

A

-protein receptors on B cells
-antigens (only one type per type of B cell)

109
Q

what occurs when an antigen binds to the BCR?

A

-the B cell will produce copies of itself
-group of identical B cells is called a clone
-all cells will have the same specificity

110
Q

what is clonal expansion within an antibody mediated response?

A

-cytokines are secreted by helper T cells to stimulate B cells to clone
-the B cell with the activated BCR produces plasma cells (most) and memory B cells

111
Q

what is the purpose of plasma cells within an antibody mediated response?

A

-produce large numbers of antibodies that bind to the antigen that initiated the clonal expansion process

112
Q

what is the purpose of memory B cells within an antibody mediated response?

A

-will become active in future encounters with the same antigen

113
Q

what occurs after an infection has been overcome in an antibody mediated response?

A

-plasma cells are not needed
-they undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death)

114
Q

what are T cell receptors (TCR)? how do they differ from BCR?

A

-unique receptors on the surface of T cells
-cannot recognize antigens on their own
-must be displayed to them by an antigen presenting cell (APC)

115
Q

how do APCs present an antigen to a T cell?

A

-the pathogen is phagocytized and broken apart
-a piece of the pathogen is displayed in the groove of a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) protein on the cells surface
-then travel to T cells in a lymph node or the spleen

116
Q

what are the 2 classes of MHC proteins?

A

-MHC I
-MHC II

117
Q

what are human MHC II proteins called? where are they found?

A

-human leukocyte antigens (HLAs)
-in all body cells

118
Q

what are the 3 general groups of HLAs?

A

-HLA-A
-HLA-B
HLA-DR
-several protein variations
-each person’s combo of HLAs is unique (twins have the same)

119
Q

what is clonal expansion within a cell mediated response?

A

-when APCs present an antigen to a T cell with the specific TCR it binds
-this activates the T cell and starts clonal expansion
-copies of the activated T cell are produced
-some become cytotoxic T cells
-some become helper T cells

120
Q

what are cytotoxic T cells?

A

-activated after recognition of an antigen presented by MHC I
-has storage vacuoles containing perforins and enzymes called granzymes

121
Q

what response do cytotoxic T cells have in response to binding with an infected cell?

A

-binding will initiate the release of perforins
-punches holes in the plasma membrane (forming a pore)
-granzymes are then delivered to the pore (cell undergoes apoptosis)

122
Q

what are T helper cells?

A

-activated after recognition of an antigen presented by MHC II
-secrete cytokines to enhance the response of all types of immune cells
-most B cells cannot be activated without them

123
Q

what virus infects T helper cells? what does this cause?

A

-HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) (causes aids)
-causes the immune response to be inactivated

124
Q

how do cells and tissues of the immune system stay in contact?

A

-cells come into contact and surface molecules interact (triggers intracellular pathways)
-cytokines are secreted to communicate in paracrine (sometimes autocrine) manners
-chemokines
-certain cells produce specific cytokines and chemokines
-certain cells express specific receptors for them

125
Q

what are chemokines?

A

-proteins that help immune cells get where they need to go
-also have other biological functions

126
Q

what brings acquired immunity? what are the 2 types of acquired immunity?

A

-naturally through infection
-artificially through medical intervention
-active and passive

127
Q

what is active immunity?

A

-individuals body makes antibodies against a particular antigen
-occurs through natural infection (measles) or through immunization involving vaccines (mimics a natural infection)

128
Q

what is contained within a vaccine?

A

-antigens from the pathogen
-treated so they can no longer cause disease

129
Q

what are the 2 exposures to an antigen?

A

-first exposure = primary response
-second exposure = secondary response

130
Q

what does active immunity depend on?

A

-memory B and T cells
-booster shots (in case of vaccines)

131
Q

what is passive immunity?

A

-an individual is given antibodies to combat a disease
-not produced by the individuals plasma cells = temporary

132
Q

what are some examples of passive immunity?

A

-newborn infants are passively immune to some diseases because IgG antibodies have crossed the placenta from the mother’s blood and are also secreted into breast milk
-antibodies injection

133
Q

what are abnormal hyper-reactions?

A

-when the immune system overreacts and causes harm to the body

134
Q

what does it mean to be sensitized?

A

-previously being exposed to an antigen manifests detectable reactions to that antigen
-memory of the immune system allows for a more effective response
-the body is primed to react to that antigen

135
Q

what is hypersensitvity?

A

-an excessive or harmful reaction to a specific antigen
-can even be allergens that would usually be harmless

136
Q

what is an immediate allergic response? what causes it?

A

-occurs within seconds of contact with the antigen
-caused by IgE antibodies attaches to receptors on mast cells and basophils (release histamine when they bind to allergens)
-food allergies experience nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea

137
Q

how does histamine affect the body in allergic responses?

A

-affects mucous membranes and airways
-when pollen is the allergen, histamine causes mucous membranes of the nose and eyes to release fluid (hay fever)
-with asthma airways constrict and wheezing occurs

138
Q

what is anaphylactic shock?

A

-an immediate allergic response
-occurs when the allergen enters the bloodstream
-sudden drop in blood pressure due to increased permeability of capillaries by histamine
-epinephrine counteracts this reaction

139
Q

what are delayed allergic responses?

A

-initiated by memory T cells at the location of contact with the allergen
-ex: poison ivy or previous immune response (tuberculosis)

140
Q

what occurs within a tissue rejection?

A

-rejection of a transplanted tissue (body recognizes it as not self)
-cytotoxic T cells attack the transplanted tissue

141
Q

how can a tissue transplant be controlled to prevent rejection?

A

-with immunosuppressive drugs
-by transplanting organs with the same MHC proteins in the donor and recipient

142
Q

how do immunosuppressive drugs act?

A

-inhibit the production of cytokines
-down regulates the entire immune system

143
Q

how does immunodeficiency arise?

A

-combo of the following
-inheritance of susceptibility genes (HLA gene or non-HLA gene)
-environmental triggers, infections, and tissue damage (promote activation of self-reactive lymphocytes)

144
Q

what are two kinds of immunodeficiency?

A

-congenital
-aquired

145
Q

what is an example of a congenital immune deficiency?

A

-severe combined immunodeficiency disease
-both antibody and cell mediated immunity are inadequate or lacking
-minor infection can be fatal
-treated with bone marrow transplant or gene therapy

146
Q

what causes acquired immune deficiencies?

A

-infections
-chemical exposure
-radiation

147
Q

what is an example of a acquired immune deficiency?

A

-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
-results from infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
-infects T helper cells
-become more susceptible to infections and have a higher risk of cancer and other diseases

148
Q

what is an autoimmune disease?

A

-cells of the immune system (cytotoxic T cells or antibodies) attack the body’s own cells as if they are foreign
-involve both genetic and environmental factors
-sometimes follows an infection

149
Q

what are examples of autoimmune diseases?

A

-rheumatic fever
-rheumatoid arthritis
-systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
-multiple sclerosis

150
Q

what is rheumatic fever?

A

-antibodies induced by a streptococcal bacterial infection of the throat also react with the heart muscle
-damages the heart muscle and valves

151
Q

what is rheumatoid arthritis?

A

-antibodies against joints (hand, wrist, knee)

152
Q

what is systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)?

A

-produce high levels of anti-DNA antibodies
-all human cells (except RBC) contain DNA (symptoms can be seen throughout the whole body)
-symptoms include facial rash, fever, joint pain
-damage to the CNS, heart, and kidneys can be fatal

153
Q

what is multiple sclerosis?

A

-T cells attack the myelin sheath covering nerve fibers
-causes the CNS to dysfunction (brain and body communication issues)
-double vision and muscular weakness
-may not be autoimmune because a specific antigen has not been identified

154
Q

what are drug treatments for autoimmune diseases designed to decrease?

A

-the immune response

HEAL1500 (12 decks)

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