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Biochemistry > Unit 6 - Carb structure and measurement > Flashcards

Unit 6 - Carb structure and measurement Flashcards

1
Q

What is the basic composition of all carbohydrates

A

Cn(H2O)n

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1
Q

What are carbohydrates made up of

A

Carbon and Water
(C,H,O)

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2
Q

Composition of Glucose

A

6 Carbons
6 Waters (H2O)

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3
Q

What is the molecular weight of 1 Carbon

A

12 g/mol

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4
Q

What is the molecular weight of 1 Water (H2O)

A

18 g/mol

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5
Q

Monosaccharide

A

One sugar

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6
Q

Disaccharide

A

Two sugars linked together

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7
Q

Polysaccharide

A

Multiple sugars linked together

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8
Q

What determines if a sugar is a reducing sugar

A

If it can form an aldehyde group

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9
Q

Reducing sugars are capable of what action?

A

Reducing cupric ions into cuprous ions

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10
Q

What sugars are monosaccharides?

A

Fructose
Glucose
Galactose

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11
Q

What sugars are disaccharides?

A

Sucrose
Maltose
Lactose

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12
Q

What sugars are NOT reducing sugars?

A

Sucrose

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13
Q

What sugars are reducing sugars

A

Glucose
Galactose
Maltose
Fructose
Lactose

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14
Q

What is maltose composed of?

A

Two glucose linked together

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15
Q

What is galactose made up of

A

6 Carbons
6 H2O

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16
Q

What is different between glucose and galactose?

A

OH-H flipped

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17
Q

What is lactose made up of

A

1 galactose
1 glucose

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18
Q

What is different about fructose

A

Location of C=O on the second carbon makes the structure look different

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19
Q

What is sucrose made up of

A

Glucose and fructose

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20
Q

Storage form of carbs in animals

A

Glycogen

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21
Q

What is glycogen made up of

A

Glucose polysaccharide

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22
Q

What is the storage carb in plants

A

Starch

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23
Q

What is starch made up of

A

Glucose polysaccharide

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24
Q

How is glucose broken down for energy production?

A

Broken down into CO2 and H2O

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25
Q

Clinitest reacts with reducing sugars such as

A

Fructose
Glucose
Galactose

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26
Q

What energy processes is glucose used in?

A

Anaerobic glycolysis
Aerobic Krebs cycle
Aerobic oxidative phosphorylation

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27
Q

Where is glucose stored in

A

Liver - Glycogen
Adipose tissue/Fat - Triglycerides

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28
Q

What can glucose be converted into? (noncarbohydrates)

A

Ketoacids
Amino acids
Protein

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29
Q

What is the carbohydrate nutrition process?

A

Food
Salivary amylase breaks disaccharides and polysaccharides
Pancreatic amylase continues breakdown in small intestine
Monosaccharides absorbed by small intestines
Monosaccharides transported to liver via hepatic portal vein
Liver converts non glucose monosaccharides into glucose

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30
Q

What structure transports monosaccharides to the liver

A

Hepatic portal vein

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31
Q

What is glucogenesis

A

When the liver converts non-glucose monosaccharides into glucose

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32
Q

What is the only monosaccharide that can be used for ATP production?

A

Glucose

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33
Q

Glycogenesis

A

Liver converting glucose into glycogen for storage

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34
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

Breakdown of glycogen into glucose for energy

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35
Q

If oxygen is low in the tissues and glucose is used, what happens?

A

Glucose used anaerobically, lactic acid builds up

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36
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

Glucose made from non-carbohydrate sources

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37
Q

What does your body do if there is not enough glucose?

A

Gluconeogenesis

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38
Q

Where does your body grab from to produce glucose?

A

Lipids
Amino acids
Glycerol
Lactate

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39
Q

Why is the conversion of non-carbohydrate sources not preferred?

A

Byproducts like ketoacids are produced, can be dangerous

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40
Q

Lipogenesis

A

Production of fat with excess glucose

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41
Q

Where is insulin produced

A

Beta islets of langerhans in pancreas

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42
Q

What does insulin want to do?

A

Lower blood glucose

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43
Q

How does insulin lower blood glucose

A

Increase tissue cell uptake
Glycogenesis
Prevent breakdown of glycogen
Lipogenesis
Suppress glucagon release
Promote formation of proteins

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44
Q

What is insulin formed from?

A

Proinsulin

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45
Q

What does proinsulin do

A

Break down into insulin and C-peptide

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46
Q

Where is glucagon produced

A

Alpha islets of langerhans

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47
Q

What does glucagon want to do

A

Increase blood glucose

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48
Q

How does glucagon increase blood glucose

A

Glycogenolysis
Lipgenolysis
Gluconeogenesis

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49
Q

Where does Cortisol come from

A

Adrenal glands, adrenal cortex

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50
Q

What does cortisol do

A

Stimulate gluconeogenesis

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51
Q

What does cortisol want to do

A

Increase blood glucose

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52
Q

Cushings Syndrome

A

Increased cortisol
Hyperglycemia

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53
Q

Addisons Disease

A

Low cortisol
Hypoglycemia

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54
Q

Where is epinephrine produced

A

Adrenal medulla

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55
Q

When is epinephrine produced

A

Stress or fright

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56
Q

What does epinephrine want to do

A

Increase blood glucose

57
Q

How does epinephrine increase blood glucose

A

Inhibit insulin
Produce glucagon
Stimulate glycogenolysis

58
Q

What do thyroid hormones do

A

Regulate body metabolism
Increase blood glucose

59
Q

How do thyroid hormones increase blood glucose

A

Increase glucose absorption in GI
Stimulate glycogenolysis
Break down insulin

60
Q

Where is growth hormone produced

A

Anterior pituitary

61
Q

What does growth hormone do

A

Growth
Increase blood glucose

62
Q

How does growth hormone increase glucose

A

Inhibiting glycolysis
Antagonizing insulin

63
Q

What does an overproduction of GH cause

A

pituitary gigantism
Acromegaly

64
Q

What hormones raise blood glucose

A

Glucagon
Cortisol
Epinephrine
Thyroid Hormones
Growth Hormone

65
Q

Glycolysis

A

Glucose oxydation

66
Q

Krebs cycle

A

Citric acid cycle

67
Q

ATP

A

Oxidative phosphorylation

68
Q

Glucose metabolism forms..?

A

ATP
Carbon Dioxide
Water

69
Q

What anticoags are used for glucose analysis

A

NaF
Lithium heparin

70
Q

When using CSF to measure glucose, what needs to be done?

A

Centrifuge and assay supernatant only

71
Q

When should CSF be analyzed for glucose levels?

A

Immediately

72
Q

What can signify there’s something wrong when analyzing CSF glucose levels?

A

False decrease - WBC and Bacteria consume glucose

73
Q

Preferred blood glucose measurement method?

A

Fasting

74
Q

Fasting

A

Specimen collected after 8 hours no food, drink besides water

75
Q

Normal fasting glucose levels

A

74-99 mg/dL

76
Q

What can emotional disturbances do to blood glucose levels?

A

Falsely elevate because of cortisol and epinepherine

77
Q

How long do you have to wait for a postprandial glucose test?

A

Two hours
Taken after a high carb meal

78
Q

Time limit for removal of glucose from cells

A

2 hours, ideally ASAP

79
Q

What tube is ideal for glucose testing only?

A

NaF because it inhibits other analytes

80
Q

How long does NaF preserve blood for glucose testing at RT?

A

24 hours

81
Q

How long does NaF preserve blood glucose for testing in the refrigerator?

A

48 hours

82
Q

How much do glucose levels go down per hr if NOT separated?

A

5-7% per hour

83
Q

How long are separated specimens stable at RT for?

A

8 hours

84
Q

How long are separated specimens stable for in the refrigerator?

A

3 days

85
Q

What can affect glucose drop/usage?

A

High hematocrit in storage
Neonate blood has high hct

86
Q

What percent of glucose is in CSF

A

60% of plasma glucose

87
Q

What can happen if testing on CSF is delayed?

A

WBC and Bacteria cause extremely low decrease

88
Q

How do children and infant levels of glucose differ from adults?

A

Lower than adults

89
Q

Arterial & Capillary vs Venous glucose levels

A

Arterial about 2-5 mg/dL higher than venous but 20-70 mg/dL higher in non fasting people

90
Q

WB glucose levels vs venous

A

~10-15% lower in WB than plasma or serum
Bcz of dilution effect

91
Q

High hematocrit results in _ glucose values

A

Lower

92
Q

Low hct results in _ glucose levels

A

Higher

93
Q

A whole blood glucometer is being used to evaluate a critically ill patients glucose. Is this okay?

A

No, abnormal hct, pH, and maltose can alter glucose readings

94
Q

IFCC recommends standardizing adjustment levels for WB to Plasma by what %?

A

11%

95
Q

Formula for WB glucose value to serum or plasma glucose value

A

WB glucose x 1.11 = Serum/Plasma glucose

96
Q

Formula for serum/plasma glucose value to WB value

A

Serum/Plasma glucose x 0.9 = WB glucose
or
Serum/Plasma glucose/1.11 = WB glucose

97
Q

What is the renal threshold for glucose

A

160-180 mg/dL in blood

98
Q

What is renal glycosuria

A

Low renal threshold because PCT isn’t as efficient

99
Q

A person eats a meal and then urine is tested for glucose levels. What should that look like?

A

Little to no glucose should be present in the urine

100
Q

What is the downfall of clinitest or copper reductase?

A

Not specific for glucose
Many interferences

101
Q

Current enzymatic glucose measurement methods

A

Hexokinase
Glucose Oxidase

102
Q

Hexokinase reaction

A

Glucose + ATP < Hexokinase + Mg > Glucose-6-PO4 + ADP

Glucose-6-PO4 + NADP <G6PD> 6phosphogluconate + NADPH + H</G6PD>

103
Q

What are the two detection methods for glucose using Hexokinase?

A

Absorbance of NADPH measured at 340 nm
or
NADPH detected using tetrazolium

104
Q

Glucose oxidase reaction

A

Glucose + 2 H2O + O2 <Glucose> Gluconic acid + 2 H2O2</Glucose>

105
Q

Two detection methods using glucose oxidase

A

Chromogen to detect peroxide production
or
Consumption of oxygen using oxygen electrode or production of peroxide using electrode

106
Q

What enzyme is required for glucose oxidase method?

A

Mutarotase to convert alpha-D glucose to beta-D glucose

107
Q

What form of glucose is required for glucose oxidase?

A

Beta - D glucose

108
Q

Copper reduction method formula

A

Cu + Glucose –> Cu2O (red) + CuOH (yellow)

109
Q

Cupric

A

Cu2+

110
Q

Cuprous

A

Cu+

111
Q

What color is cuprous ion

A

Red

112
Q

What reducing sugars are detected by clinitest

A

Glucose
Galactose
Lactose
Fructose

113
Q

What reducing agent interferes with clinitest/copper reductase

A

ascorbic acid or vitamin C

114
Q

Newborn screening for inborn errors of metabolism of glucose

A

Copper reductase for Galactose
Replaced by HPLC Tandem MS

115
Q

Glycated hemoglobin

A

Glucose rects with a.a. of proteins

116
Q

What does glycation do to tissues?

A

Damage

117
Q

How does glucose bind to amino group?

A

In its aldehyde form

118
Q

Is the attachment of glucose to an a.a. enzymatic or non enzymatic?

A

Non-enzymatic

119
Q

Is the attachment of glucose to an a.a. reversible or irreversible?

A

Irreversible

120
Q

What factors dictate glycated hgb levels?

A

Plasma glucose
Lifespan of RBC

121
Q

What specimen is used for Glycated hgb?

A

EDTA with no fasting

122
Q

How long is specimen for glycated hgb stable for?

A

4C for 1 week

123
Q

HbA1c reflects average blood glucose over how long?

A

8-12 weeks

124
Q

Normal adult glycated hgb

A

A1

125
Q

Normal adult nonglycated Hgb

A

A0

126
Q

Where does hgbA1c attach on hb?

A

Amino terminus of the beta chain of hgb

127
Q

Most abundant glycated hgb?

A

A1c
85%

128
Q

What % of all hgb is A1c?

A

4-6%

129
Q

Different methods of detecting A1c

A

Bond between glucose and amino group (done w/ ab, chemical affinity)
Charge difference (Ion exchange chromatography, HPLC)
Enzymatically split glycated portion off and measure it

130
Q

If A1c is <4% or >15%, what should you suspect?

A

Variant hgb

131
Q

Populations with higher prevalence of hgbopathies have a higher prevalence of…?

A

Diabetes

132
Q

Short RBC life span or young cells result in ___ Ghgb

A

False decrease

133
Q

How does iron deficiency anemia affect glycation?

A

Enhanced glycation from metabolic alteration or smaller cells

134
Q

Iron deficiency anemia causes a false ___ in Hgb A1c levels

A

Increase

135
Q

When can you use A1c measurements in iron deficiency anemia?

A

Not until anemia is gone

136
Q

How do transfusion affect A1c levels in high A1c levels?

A

False decrease

137
Q

how do transfusions affect A1c in low A1c?

A

False increase, because have been sitting in glucose

138
Q

How does renal insufficiency affect Ghgb?

A

False decrease because high urea attaches to hgb, EPO produces young cells

139
Q

What can cause true hypoglycemia?

A

Overuse of diabetes medicaiton
Extreme diet
Liver failure

140
Q

What causes a false hypoglycemia?

A

Renal insufficiency

141
Q
A

Biochemistry (26 decks)

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