unit 5 - lecture notes

Question 1

What are 7 types of approaches to knowledge? Briefly describe each one.

Answer 1

1. Intuition- knowing based on feelings.
2. Common sense - opinions that are widely held because they seem obviously correct.
3. Tradition- that which is transmitted from one generation to the next.
4. Authority - those defined as qualified to produce that knowledge.
5. Revelation- supernaturally knowledgeable authorities.
6. Rationality- adhering to basic logic.
7. Science- adhering to basic logic but adding observation.

Question 2

Why is the scientific approach to knowledge more often closer to the truth?

Answer 2

When using the scientific approach, your work is checked and rechecked by peers and other professionals.

Question 3

What are 7 types of common errors regarding personal human inquiry? Briefly describe each one.

Answer 3

1. Inaccurate observations- the human memory focuses on various things and throughout time the memory can be changed.
2. Over generalization- conducting a study with a small group and extending the results over a mass population.
3. Selective observation- it is easy to accept facts that support our arguments and can be difficult to look at arguments that challenge us
4. Fabricated information- information that is not scientifically proven.
5. Illogical reasoning.
6. Ego involvement in understanding- when the ego is involved, it can skew perception or what an individual is willing to hear.
7. Mystification- when an idea or concept is mystified, it cannot be challenged by others because it is only a perceptual experience, not based in fact.

Question 4

What are six assumptions of science as an approach to gathering knowledge?

Answer 4

1. Nature is orderly- an Apple can never fall upwards.
2. Nature can be known.
3. Knowledge is always superior to ignorance.
4. Natural phenomena have natural causes.
5. Nothing is self evident- just because something looks to be a certain way, it should still be tested to be confirmed.
6. Knowledge is derived from acquisition of experience.

Question 5

What are 5 aims of social science? Briefly describe.

Answer 5

1. Exploration- as questions are developed and tested, better and more detailed questions are developed.
2. Description- a summary of observations; what questions can be asked?
3. Explanation- an interpretation of observations.
4. Prediction
5. A sense of understanding- there becomes a greater understanding of the initial question asked as well as its nuances.

Question 6

Sociology is not a deterministic science, it is a what? What does it attempt to do?

Answer 6

It is a probabilistic science.
Social science is an attempt to:
- isolate the few most important factors that
- provide a partial explanation of the
- behavior of many people.

Question 7

What are three general types of causes or factors?

Answer 7

1. Contributing factors
2. Necessary factors
3. Sufficient factors

Question 8

In relation to weight gain, what are examples of contributing factors?

Answer 8

1. If you are not an active person
2. Making poor food choices
3. Engaging in binge eating
4. Genetics
5. Having a disease that affects digestive system

Question 9

In relation to weight gain, what is an example of a necessary factor?

Answer 9

Food

Question 10

In relation to weight gain, what is an example of a sufficient factor?

Answer 10

Nothing can guarantee weight gain; in social science, it is rare to find a sufficient cause to explain social phenomena.

Question 11

What are three aspects that make up the criteria for causality?

Answer 11

1. Time sequence- the statement that “whenever there is a fire there are fire trucks, therefore, fire trucks cause fires” is incorrect because of the time sequence.
2. A correlation between two variables- a will affect b; when a moves, B will move.
3. Correlation cannot be explained by a third variable- the statement “when ice cream sales increase, so do drownings,” is misleading. An increase in ice cream sales and drownings likely occur when the weather is warmer.

Question 12

What are the three principles of science? Briefly explain.

Answer 12

1. Variables- characteristics of objects, people, or groups of people that can be measured.
2. Measurement- the dependency of my results is going to heavily rely on the quality of my measurement.
3. Sampling and sampling design- how do you attract a sample of people and how is it designed?

Question 13

What are the four categories of variables? Elaborate using the example of smoking.

Answer 13

1. Dependent- one to be explained
   ex. lung cancer
2. Independent- causes change independent
   ex. What changes occur in smokers? What changes occur in non smokers?
3. Control - potential alternate causes
   ex. What are other causes of lung cancer besides smoking?
4. Hypothesis - two or more variables are linked by some relationship
   ex. Those who smoke are at a higher risk of developing lung cancer, the more you smoke the greater the rates of lung cancer.

Question 14

What are two requirements to ensure a high quality measurement? What do they entail?

Answer 14

1. Validity- accuracy; am I measuring what I think I’m measuring?
2. Reliability- consistency; the extent to which a study or research instrument will continue to yield consistent results.

Question 15

What are two types of sampling? Briefly describe.

Answer 15

1. Probability- random; the probability of the unit that’s being selected can be specified.
2. Non probability- there is no way of specifying the probability of the unit being selected.

Question 16

What is the main issue faced when it comes to sampling and sampling design?

Answer 16

Representativeness; Can you draw in the people needed to complete your study without generalizing?

Question 17

What are three methods of data collection?

Answer 17

1. Classic experimental design- used to obtain results for short term immediate effects.
2. Survey methods
3. Field research or qualitative methods- observing life and its natural habitat.

Question 18

According to survey methods, what are five types of questions that can be asked?

Answer 18

1. Fixed/forced/closed- your question applies to a specific group.
2. Rating- a scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree
3. Ranking- given various options and told to rank them from favorite to least favorite.
4. Semantic differential- options are to be placed on a spectrum of most to least enjoyed
5. Open- a blank space allowing for a personalized response.

Question 19

When constructing questions for a survey, what are 4 types that should be avoided? Elaborate.

Answer 19

1. Being careful to avoid negative questions- the answer can be confusing if it becomes a double negative statement.
   ex. “i don’t disagree”
2. Leading or loaded questions- makes it seem like there is a correct answer to a general question.
3. Threatening questions- if a question regarding illegal activities is asked, the likelihood of an honest answer is low.
4. Double barrel questions - there are two aspects of one question, a participant may agree with one part but disagree with the other.

Question 20

In regards to the qualitative method of research, what are four potential roles of the observer?

Answer 20

1. Complete participation- The Observer is completely concealed regarding their natural habitat.
2. Participant as observer - participating in the natural habitat but you are now known as an observer.
3. Observer only- you are known to be a researcher and are not participating.
4. Undisclosed observer- observing a group without them knowing that they are being observed.