Unit 5 Flashcards
Cognition
the process of thinking or mentally processing information such as concepts, language, and images
Metacognition
When we think about our thinking, active control and awareness of our own thinking
Prototype
Mental image or the best example of a specific concept or category
Convergent thinking “logic”
Type of thinking that focuses on coming up with the single, well-established answer to a problem (limits creativity)
Divergent thinking “imagination”
exploring many possible solutions (creativity)
Trial and error
A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number of different solutions and ruling out those that do not work
Algorithm
Set of step-by-step procedures that provides the correct answer to a particular problem
Heuristics
An educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem
(mental shortcuts)
Representativeness heuristic
Comparing the present situation to the most representative mental prototype
Availability heuristics
Basing decisions on examples and information that immediately spring to mind
Insight learning
A sudden and often new realization of the solution a problem, such as suddenly seeing a cause and effect relationship
Wolfgang Kohler
Studied chimps trying to get bananas that were out of reach
Most of the time Kohler observed the chimps were unproductive and upset, then suddenly they placed boxes on top of one other and climbed on them to reach the bananas
The chimps had sudden insight on how to solve the problem
Mental set
Tendency people have to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking for alternative ideas
Functional fixedness
Tendency to view problems only in their customary manner
Prevents people from fully seeing all of the different options that might be available to find a solution
Confirmation bias
A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
Belief perseverance
Tendency to hold on to beliefs even when evidence proves those beliefs to be wrong
Overconfidence
Tendency to overestimate our own knowledge, skill, or judgment
Hindsight bias
The tendency people have to view events as more predictable than they really are
After an event, people often believe that they knew the outcome of the event before it actually happened
Framing
The process of presenting or posing an issue or question, how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments people make
Anchoring effect
Favoring the first information offered
People have a tendency to rely too heavily on the very first piece of information they learn
Language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
Phonemes
Smallest meaningful unit of sound in a language
Morpheme
the smallest unit of meaning in a language
Semmantics
the set of rules that we use to derive meaning from words and sentences
Syntax
the way in which words are put together to form sentences
Grammar
set of rules for combining language units into meaningful speech or writing
Babbling stage
Beginning at four months of age
the repetition of syllables that represent an infant’s first attempt at speech
One word stage
Ages one and two, child speaks mostly in single words
Two word stage
ge two, a child speaks mostly two-or three word statements “Get Ball”
Full sentences
by ages six to ten, children speak in full sentences and master syllable stress patterns to distinguish among words
Skinner’s theory of language
Skinner believed children learn language through operant conditioning—that children receive “rewards” for using language in a functional manner
Noam Chomsky, Inborn Universal Grammar:
All human languages contain nouns, verbs and adjectives, and humans are born with innate ability to acquire language, and even a genetic predisposition to learn grammatical rules
Wernickes’s area
Region of the brain that is important for language development
Responsible for the comprehension of speech
Broca’s area
Production of Speech. functions to help you put words together fluently to speak more than one word at a time, forming complete sentences
Intelligence
The ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situation or solving problems
Binet-simon intelligence scale
Binet and colleague Theodore Simon developed a series of tests designed to assess mental abilities (basis for modern intelligence tests)
IQ
William Stern created formula to compute one’s Intelligence Quotient (IQ) by taking the mental age (provided by the exam) divided by the chronological age (actual age of child) multiplied by 100
Standfort binet intelligence test
Lewis Terman modified test for the United States, audience of varied ages and broader range of subjects
G factor
By Charles Spearman. eneral intelligence factor which accounts for a large amount of the variability in IQ scores
Factor analysis
a statistical method that identifies common causes of variance in different tests
Fluid intelligence
ability to reason think flexibly (diminish with adult aging)
Crystallized intelligence
accumulation of knowledge, facts/skills (increase with age)
Theory of Multiple Intelligences:
By howard gardner and describes eight distinct types of intelligence based on skills and abilities
Savant Syndrome
Condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Sternberg’s theory that proposes three distinct intelligences (analytical, creative, and practical), which work together to make up your overall intelligence
Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WAIS)
Intelligence test that was first published in 1955 and designed to measure intelligence in adults and older adolescents
Flynn effect
IQ scores have been rising worldwide
Achievement tests
designed to measure person’s level of skill/knowledge in a specific area
Aptitude test
Designed to assess what a person is capable of doing or to predict what a person is able to learn or do, often used to assess academic potential or career suitability
Reliability “Consistency”
tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people
Validity
The degree in which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure
Predictive
test accurately forecasts performance on a future measure
Standardization
a process by which scores for a population are placed into set intervals to allow for easy analysis of test results
Normal distribution
Bell-shaped curve in which the majority of scores lie near or around the average score
Intellectual disability
Score two or more standard deviations below the norm on a traditional IQ test (70 IQ or below)
Intellectually gifted
Very few individuals (approximately 0.2%) receive a score of more than 145 (indicating a very high IQ)
Memory
learning that has persisted over time and information that has been stored and can be retrieved
Recall
Being able to access the information without being cued
(fill in the blank test without word bank)
Recognition
Identifying information after experiencing it again
(multiple choice test)
Relearning
The process by which we learn something for the second time. This learning process often occurs faster than the first time (study for cumulative final)
Information processing model
Model of memory, compares our mind to a computer in a series of three stages: encoding, storage, retrieval
encoding
The process of putting information into the memory system
storage
The creation of a permanent record of the encoded information
Retrieval
The calling back of stored information on demand when it is needed
Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model of Memory
Three different memory systems characterized by time frames
Sensory Memory (three sub groups)
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
Sensory memory
xternal events from our senses are held just long enough to be perceived
Iconic memory
Sensory input to the visual system goes into iconic memory, duration of less than a second
Echoic memory
The branch of sensory memory used by the auditory system
Haptic memory
The branch of sensory memory used by the sense of touch
Shallow processing
Encoding on a basic level based on the structure of appearance
Structural-encode physical qualities
Phonemic-encode sound
Manteinance rehearsal
Straight repeating of information in order to memorize it to prolong its presence in STM , can increase the length of time information can be stored to about thirty seconds
Chunking
Process of taking individual pieces of information (chunks) and grouping them into larger units
short term memory
The capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a brief period of time (about 20 to 30 seconds)
Baddeley’s Working Memory:
System in your brain that allows you to temporarily retain and manipulate the stored information involved in a complex process
memory span
Number of items a person can remember and repeat back using attention and short-term memory
Procedural memory
how to perform a specific task
explicit memory
Information that you have to consciously work to remember
semantic memory
memories of facts, concepts, names, and other general knowledge
Episodic memory events
long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences
Prospective memory
Remembering to complete a task in the future
Long term potentiation
Strengthening of a synaptic connection that happens when the synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires and excites another neuron (Kandel & Schwartz)
Forgetting curve
the exponential loss of information shortly after learning it (Hermann Ebbinghaus)
Retrograde amnesia
cannot remember things that happened before the event that caused their amnesia
Anterograde amnesia
Condition in which a person is unable to create new memories after an amnesia-inducing event
Serial possition effect
When we try to retrieve a long list of words we usually recall the last words (recency effect) and first words best (primary effect), forgetting the words in the middle
Encoding failure
occurs when a memory was never formed in the first place (without effort, many memories never form)
Proactive interference
older memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories
retroactive interference
newer memories interfere with the retrieval of older memories
Flashbulb memories
Vivid and detailed memories that people create during times of personal tragedy, accident, or emotionally significant world events
Elizabeth Loftus (1944)
Extensive research on memory construction and false memories and how memory is changeable, it is not always accurate
Misinformation effect
exposed to misleading information we tend to misremember
Method of loci
Association of words on a list with visualization of places on a familiar path
context dependent memory
Easier Recall of information while in the same “context” of environment in which it was acquired
State dependent memory
Memories that are triggered or enhanced by a person’s current mood because of the relationship to memories formed when you were in a similar state
