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Biology Honors > Unit 4 - Cell Replication Study Guide > Flashcards

Unit 4 - Cell Replication Study Guide Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the steps of mitosis?

A

Prophase - Chromatin form chromosomes & centrioles form spindle fibers
Metaphase - Chromosomes line up in the middle (equatorial plate)
Anaphase - Chromosomes split apart and spindle fibers move them to the poles
Telophase - Chromosomes uncoil becoming chromatin, spindle fibers dissappear, & cell membrane is formed
——
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕: Two identical daughter cells
Start Chromosomes: 46
End Chromosomes: 46

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2
Q

Define cytokinesis

A

Last step of the cell cycle where the cytoplasm divides into two cells

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3
Q

What are the phases of the Cell Cycle of somatic cells?

A
  1. Interphase
    G1 (Gap 1-growth) phase
    S-(Synethsis) phase
    G2 (Gap 2-growth) phase
  2. Mitosis
    Prophase
    Metaphase
    Anaphase
    Telophase
  3. Cytokenisis
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4
Q

What is the function of stem cells?

A

Bodies repair system; regenerates cells in organs

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5
Q

Where are stem cells produced?

A
  1. Bone Marrow
  2. Blood
  3. Adipose tissue
    (*Can also be artificially grown)
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6
Q

General characteristics of Viruses

A
  • Non-living particle
  • Cytoplasm covered by protein coat called capsid; NO cell parts
  • 3 groups:
    • Bacterial viruses
    • Plant viruses
    • Animal viruses
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7
Q

HIV (Human immunodeficiency Virus)

A

HIV: Viral infection that attacks the immune system by destroying white blood cells
- Replicates via Lysogenic cycle
- Develops into AIDs once the virus replicates

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8
Q

How are viruses transmitted?

A
  1. Human to Human
  2. Dust or water particles in the air (ex. measles, common cold)
  3. Contaminated water/food (ex. Cholera)
  4. Animal/insect bite (ex. rabies, West Nile)
  5. Insect bodies (ex. typhoid)
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9
Q

Lytic Virus cycle steps

A
  1. Bacteriophage attack to bacteria
  2. DNA injected into host
  3. Making virus parts
  4. Assembling virus parts
  5. Cell explodes- releasing viruses
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10
Q

Which cells work as part of the immune system?

A

Epithelial cell
Macrophages
Killer T-cells
Helper T-cells
B-cells
Memory Cells

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11
Q

Describe an immune response.

A
  1. Epitheal cells are infected, so they call for help by releasing chemicals
  2. Macrophages engulf the invader through the process phagocytosis. If more help is needed, they alert T-cells by releasing chemicals
  3. Helper T-cell send chemical messages that replicate Killer T-cells and B-cells
  4. Killer T-cell use antigens to differentiate between healthy cells and infected cells, destroying infected cells by releasing cytotoxins
  5. B-cells make proteins called antibodies that trap specific invaders in large clumps to be engulfed by macrophages.
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12
Q

Cancer

A

Cancer - Uncontrolled cell growth
Causes:
- Mutation in Proto-oncogenes
- Mutation in Tumer surpressing genes

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13
Q

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

A

Function: Stores information that cells need to developand replicate
Structure: 2 strands, made of subunits called Nucleotides; 1 of 4 nitrogen bases (A-T C-G), phosphate group, & deoxyribose sugar.
*Phosphate group + deoxyribose = nucleoside/DNA backbone

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14
Q

Where is DNA located in Eukaryotes? Prokaryotes?

A

Eukaryotic - nucleus
Prokaryotic - cytoplasm

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15
Q

What is the shape of DNA?

A

Double Helix

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16
Q

Who took the first pictures of DNA? Who developed the DNA model?

A

Rosalind Franklin took 1st picture of DNA.
James Watson & Francis Crick discovered/developed the first DNA model.

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17
Q

Subunit of DNA.

A

Subunit of DNA is a Nucleotide. Nucleotides are made of 1 of 4 nitrogen bases (Thymine, Adenine, Guanine, & Cytosine), phosphate group, and deoxyribose sugar.

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18
Q

What type of bonds hold together the nitrogen bases of DNA? The phosphate and deoxyribose backbone?

A

Weak hydrogen bonds hold together nitrogen bases.
Covalent bonds hold together the backbone made of phospate and deoxyribose.

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19
Q

Differentiate purines and pyrimidines.

A

Purine: Adenine & Guanine- double rings
Pyrimidines: Cytosine, Thymine (DNA only), & Uracil (RNA only)- single rings
Purines always pair with Pyrimidines.

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20
Q

4 bases in DNA

A

(- is pairing)
Adenine - Thymine
Cytosine - Guanine

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21
Q

Complimentary DNA & mRNA sequence to:
CTAGCCA

A

DNA - GATCGGT
mRNA - GAUCGGU

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22
Q

Steps of DNA replication

A
  1. Helicase (enzyme) breaks DNA’s weak hydrogen bonds into two lines of nucleotides
  2. DNA polymerase (enzyme) aligns line of nucleotides to other nucleotides from nucleoplasm
  3. Weak hydrogen bonds link nitrogen bases & covalent bonds link the phasphate groups with deoxyribose sugars to make back bone of DNA
  4. Enzymes proof read for errors and make corrections (errors = mutations)
    Result: Two identical double helix’s of DNA
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23
Q

Why do cells need to replicate their DNA?

A

So both daughter cells have genetic material (instructions) to function

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24
Q

Why would the body need to make new cells?

A
  1. Growth
  2. Repair
  3. Regeneration
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25
Q

Enzymes in DNA replication

A
  • Helicase (enzyme) breaks DNA’s weak hydrogen bonds into two lines of nucleotides
  • DNA polymerase (enzyme) aligns nucleotides from old DNA to new nucleotides
  • Enzymes proof read for errors and make corrections (errors = mutations)
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26
Q

During which phase of the cell cycle does DNA Replication occur?

A

S-Phase of Interphase

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27
Q

What two processes are made possible because of DNA Replication?

A

Cell Cycles Mitosis & Meiosis

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28
Q

What are the three types of RNA and what is their structure, role, and location in cell?

A

mRNA (messanger RNA)
- Carries DNA code from nucleos/cytoplasm to ribosome to make proteins
- Single strand made of 1 of 4 nitrogen bases (A, U, C, G), phosphate group, & ribose
tRNA (transfer RNA)
- Carries amino acid mRNA codes for; pairs it’s anti-codons with mRNA codons
- clover leaf made of RNA nucleotides and amino acid
rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
- Clamps onto mRNA and uses its info to assemble amino acids
- Folds proteins into specific shape based on function
- Makes up ribosomes

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29
Q

Steps of Protein Sythesis

A

TRANSCRIPTION
1. Helicase (enzyme) uncoils/unzips DNA
2. RNA polymerase (enzyme) recognizes the uncoiled nucleotides and brings RNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm
3. New ribose and phosphate backbone is formed
4. DNA and RNA strand (mRNA) seperate
TRANSLATION
1. mRNA leaves nucleus for ribosome
2. mRNA moves through ribosome until paired with START codon (AUG)
4. Anti codons on tRNA pair with complementary bases on codons on mRNA, & Amino acids at other end of tRNA form peptide bonds
6. tRNA continues pairing until mRNA codes for STOP codon (UAG, UGA, UAA)
7. rRNA folds protein based on function
Result: Protein

30
Q

Transcription & Translation

A

Transcription - DNA code is copied to mRNA
Translation - mRNA codes for tRNA’s amino acids that form proteins

31
Q

4 bases in RNA

A

Adenine - Uracil
Cytosine - Guanine

32
Q

Complimentary mRNA sequence to CTAGCCA.

A

GAUCGGU

33
Q

Codons & Anti-codons

A

Codons - Group of 3 nitrogen bases on mRNA
Anti-Codons - Group of 3 nitrogen bases on tRNA

34
Q

What amino acids code for the sequences CGA GCC AUA?

A

-Use codon chart
CGA - Arginine
GCC - Alanine
AUA - Isoleucine

35
Q

Gene mutations and Chromosomal mutations

A

Chromosomal mutations - change in large piece of chromosome
Gene mutations - change in DNA sequence in one gene of the chromosome

36
Q

Types of gene mutations

A

Point Mutations - 1 nitrogen base is replaced = 1 amino acid changes
Framshift Mutations - 1 nitrogen base is deleted or added causing entire chain to shift = ALL amino acids change

37
Q

Types of chromosomal mutations

A

Deletion - Part is deleted
Insertion - Part is added
Inversion - Sequence is flipped
Translation - Part is transferred between chromosomes

38
Q

Adult/somatic stem cells vs. Embryonic stem cells

A

Embryonic Stem Cells - forms 4-5 days after fertilization and can turn into ANY cell

Adult/somatic Stem Cells- can turn into SOME cells

39
Q

Provirus

A

stage in virus cycle where the virus is inactive in a host cell, producing only a few viruses at a time; cells function normally but can infect others

40
Q

Influenza

A
  • Viral infection that infects the sinuses/respiratory system
  • Replicates via lyctic cycle
  • Mutates a lot causing many strains
41
Q

Smallpox

A
  • Viral infection
  • Passed by sneezing and coughing
  • Eradicated in 1980 because of it’s 40% kill rate
42
Q

Lysogenic Virus Cycle steps

A
  1. Bacteriophage attach to bacteria
  2. DNA injected into host
  3. Viral DNA incorporated into plasmid
  4. Viral DNA replicates with cell division
  5. Viruses are constructed
  6. Cells explodes- releasing viruses
43
Q

Why are there not vaccines available for all viruses?

A

Viruses mutate to quickly before one is made (ex. common cold)

44
Q

Bacteriophage

A

Virus that attacks bacteria

45
Q

What is the immune response to an invader that has previosly infected the body?

A

Before the invader can replicate for long, memory cells recognize the virus from previous exposure as an invader, activate memory B-cells and memory T-cells that act as B-cells and T-cells, but more efficient because more antibodies are produced.

46
Q

Backbone of DNA

A

Phosphate group & deoxyribose linked by covalent bonds

47
Q

How can organisms be different from each other if their genetic material is made of nucleotides? (What makes you genetically different than a giraffe)

A

sequences of bases & quanity of genetic material

48
Q

What is uncoiled and coiled DNA in the nucleos?

A

Coiled DNA = Chromosomes
Uncoiled DNA = Chromatin

49
Q

What is the origin of each strand in the replicated DNA?

A

one strand is new
one strand is old

50
Q

DNA Complementary bases of CAAGTC

A

GTTCAG

51
Q

DNA controls the production of ______

A

Proteins

52
Q

DNA is a polymer. Define Polymer.

A

Molecule made of many small pieces called monomers

53
Q

How do you know if two organisms are closely related?

A

sequence and quanity of bases

54
Q

START & END codons

A

Start = AUG
End = UAG, UGA, UAA

55
Q

Why can mRNA leave the nucleus but DNA can’t?

A

mRNA is single stranded, DNA is double stranded

56
Q

How can only 20 amino acids be made into all the proteins organisms need?

A

Sequence & Quanity

57
Q

Mutations in ____________ are NOT passed onto offspring. Only affect offspring if in ____________.

A

Somatic/body cells;
sex/gamete cells

58
Q

DNA & RNA

A

DNA
Strands - 2
Sugar - Deoxyribose
Bases - A-T C-G
RNA
Strands - 1
Sugar - RIbose
Bases - A-T C-G

59
Q

Cell Fission

A

Asexual reproduction; division of parent cell into two daughter cells

60
Q

Body/somatic cells vs. Sex cells

A

Body/Somatic cells
÷ by mitosis
46 chromosomes
Sex Cells
÷ by meiosis
23 chromosomes

61
Q

Chromatin vs. Chromosomes

A

Chomatin - uncoiled strands of DNA
Chromosomes - coiled strands of DNA made of two chromatids and a centromere

62
Q

Chromosomes are counted by there ______________.

A

CENTROMERE (ex. 46 chromosomes with only one chromatid + one centromere would still be 46 chromosomes)

63
Q

Homologous chromosomes

A

2 chromosomes (pair) with the same info

64
Q

Diploid vs. Haploid

A

Diploid - cell contains 2 sets of chromosomes (46 chromosomes) = body cells
Haploid - cell contains 1 set of chromosomes (23 chromosomes) = sperm/egg

65
Q

What are the steps of Interphase?

A

G1 (Gap 1-growth) phase - increases size and prepares to replicate DNA
S-(Synethsis) phase - replicates DNA, having 2 sets of chromosomes, NO errors
G2 (Gap 2-growth) phase - Continues to grow

66
Q

Acroynm for Mitosis steps

A

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

67
Q

In mitosis in plants, the cytoplasm pinches and a ______ ______ is formed between both plant cells.

A

Cell Plate

68
Q

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death, process that eliminates unneccassary cells to differentiate, or initiate cell death.

69
Q

What is the purpose of checkpoints in the cell cycle?

A

Checks for errors, so erroes don’t develop into things like cancer

70
Q

Cell Cycle regulators

A

Proteins that control the progression of a cell through the cell cycle, either stimulates or ends cell cycle:
-Stimulating proteins are proto-oncogenes. Mutations make Oncogenes that increase stimulation causing to much cell division.
-Inhibitory proteins are tumor supressor genes. Mutations make them unable to work, causing no slowing down.

Biology Honors (12 decks)

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