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A level Biology > Unit 3.1 - Energy And ATP and Unit 3.3 - Respiration released chemical energy in biological processes > Flashcards

Unit 3.1 - Energy And ATP and Unit 3.3 - Respiration released chemical energy in biological processes Flashcards

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1
Q

What is ATP?

A

A nucleotide

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2
Q

What is ATP known as and why?

A

The universal energy currency of the cell - is used in all processes requiring energy, in all reactions in all living cells, making it the major energy currency of the cell

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3
Q

How does ATP show the relationship between all living organisms?

A

There’s no other method for them to transfer energy, it’s in all types of cells and it’s only evolved once in the history of life

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4
Q

Name some uses of ATP in the cell

A

Protein synthesis
Active transport
Movement of cells (e.g - spermatozoa swimming, contraction of muscle cells)
DNA replication

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5
Q

Why is ATP so important?

A

Used in all reactions in all cells

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6
Q

4 benefits of ATP

A

Inert
Soluble
Easily transported
Releases energy efficiently

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7
Q

What are the 3 components of all nucleotides?

A

Organic base
Pentose sugar
Phosphate groups

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8
Q

What does the structure of ATP consist of?

A

3 phosphate group
Adenine
Ribose sugar

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9
Q

How is energy released from ATP?

A

Hydrolysis of the bond between the 2nd and 3rd phosphate groups

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10
Q

What is responsible for the hydrolysis of the bond between the 2nd and 3rd phosphate groups in ATP?

A

ATPase

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11
Q

How much energy is released when the bond is hydrolysed in ATP?

A

30.6kJmol-1 of energy

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12
Q

Equation for ATP synthesis

A

ATP ⇌ ADP + Pi

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13
Q

Why is 30.6kJmol-1 a good amount of energy to be released from ATP?

A

Little wasted as heat
Usable amount

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14
Q

What’s the name of the process used to reform ATP?

A

Phosphorylation

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15
Q

Phosphorylation

A

Phosphate group (Pi) added to ADP by condensation reaction

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16
Q

How is ATP reformed?

A

Phosphate group (Pi) added to ADP by condensation reaction

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17
Q

Name for ATP to ADP

A

Dephosphorylation

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18
Q

What happens to energy during dephosphorylation?

A

Available for cellular work and for chemical synthesis

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19
Q

What type of reaction is dephosphorylation?

A

Exergonic

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20
Q

What type of reaction is phosphorylation?

A

Endergonic

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21
Q

Where does the energy required for phosphorylation come from?

A

Sunlight or food

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22
Q

Is there an ATP store? Why?

A

No - the ATP cycle is continuous

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23
Q

Where does most ATP synthesis take place?

A

On the internal membranes of mitochondria and chloroplasts

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24
Q

Do prokaryotes make ATP differently? Why?

A

Yes - they don’t have mitochondria or chloroplasts

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25
Q

What’ the name of the process of making ATP in mitochondria and chloroplasts?

A

Chemiosmosis

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26
Q

Why is Chemiosmosis called this?

A

Osmosis with protons, not water

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27
Q

Which part of mitochondria and chloroplasts is ATP produced in?

A

Inner membranes

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28
Q

Stages of Chemiosmosis

A

1.) the enzyme ATP synthetase is part of the stalked particle
2.) this enzyme catalyses the phosphorylation of ADP (the addition of Pi) to form ATP
3.) the enzyme cannot do this without energy. This comes from the flow of protons through the stalked particle’s channel and through ATP synthetase
4.) flow of protons generates an electrochemical gradient, which is a source of potential energy
5.) this drives the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP (chemical energy)

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29
Q

How does ATPsynthetase obtain its energy to catalyse the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP?

A

From the flow of protons through the stalked particle’s channel - generates an electrochemical gradient, a source of potential energy

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30
Q

Why do protons flow through the stalked particle’s channel during Chemiosmosis?

A

There’s a high concentration of protons in the inter membrane space
The protons diffuse from the intermembrane space to the matrix through the stalked particle

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31
Q

Why is there a concentration gradient for the protons in the intermembrane space in mitochondria?

A

Protons have been pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space by transport proteins (proton pumps)

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32
Q

Why can’t protons just flow through the inner membrane without using the channels in the mitochondria?

A

Protons are polar
Repelled by the non-polar fatty acid tails of the phospholipids that make up the phospholipid bilayer

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33
Q

What are the differences between Chemiosmosis in chloroplasts and mitochondria?

A

Mitochondria
Protons flow across the inner membrane
From the intermembrane space
To the matrix

Chloroplasts
Protons flow across the thylakoid membrane
From the thylakoid space
To the stoma

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34
Q

Where does the energy come from to maintain the concentration of protons in the intermembrane space/thylakoid space in mitochondria and chloroplasts?

A

Mitochondria - food
Chloroplasts - light

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35
Q

What do both food and light have to do with the electron transport chain?

A

Both excite electrons

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36
Q

Where does the energy for proton pumps to pump protons come from?

A

The flow of electrons in the electron transport chain

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37
Q

What are part of the electron transport chain (in the mitochondria) in the inner membrane?

A

Stalked particles
x3 proton pumps
Electron carrier proteins

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38
Q

Stages in the electron transport chain

A

1.) Electron comes from an electron donor - NADH
2.) high energy electron provides energy for proton pumps to pump protons
3.) When NAD loses an electron, it becomes oxidised, whilst the proton pump is reduced (gains an electron) = redox reaction
4.) as the electron is passed from one component to the next in the chain, it causes a series of redox reactions

NADH2 —> NAD+ + 2e- + 2H+

5.) At the end of the process, electrons have to leave the proton pump to make space for the chain to continue, so oxygen accepts the electron

2H+ + 2e- + 1/202 —> H2O

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39
Q

What type of electrons are involved in the electron transport chain?

A

High energy electrons

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40
Q

Beginning reaction of the electron transport chain

A

NADH2 —> NAD+ + 2e- + 2H+

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41
Q

End reaction of the electron transport chain

A

2H+ + 2e-+ 1/2O2 —> H20

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42
Q

Why do we breathe oxygen?

A

So that cells can use is during oxidative phosphorylation, at the final stage of cellular respiration

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43
Q

Which processes make up oxidative phosphorylation?

A

The electron transport chain
Chemiosmosis

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44
Q

What happens during transpiration?

A

High energy bonds in energy rich molecules such as glucose and fatty acids are broken

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45
Q

Energy rich molecules examples

A

Glucose
Fatty acids

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46
Q

Examples of bonds broken during respiration

A

C-C
C-H
C-OH

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47
Q

What is the energy released during respiration used for?

A

To produce ATP

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48
Q

Using which process is ATP produced using the energy released during respiration?

A

Phosphorylation
(Pi + ADP)

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49
Q

What is respiration catalysed by?

A

Enzymes

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50
Q

4 stages of respiration

A

Glycolysis
The link reaction
The Krebs cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation

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51
Q

Where does glycolysis occur?

A

Cytoplasm

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52
Q

Why does glycolysis not occur in the mitochondria?

A

Glucose cannot pass through mitochondrial membranes

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53
Q

What type of cells does glycolysis occur in and why?

A

Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Can occur under anaerobic and aerobic conditions - no O2 is used

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54
Q

Stages of glycolysis

A

1.) 2 ATP molecules are needed for the phosphorylation of glucose
2.) forms hexose phosphate
3.) hexose phosphate is unstable - forms 2 molecules of triose phosphate (TP)
4.) each TP molecules loses 2 hydrogen atoms by dehydrogenation
5.) this reduction reaction is catalysed by dehydrogenase
6.) hydrogen atoms released are picked up by NAD to form NADH2 (reduced NAD)
7.) 2 molecules of ATP are also produced by substrate level phosphorylation
8.) pyruvate is formed

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55
Q

Products of glycolysis

A

Pyruvate
Reduced NAD
2 ATP molecules (net)

56
Q

What is the net ATP produce of glycolysis? Why

A

2
2 used, 4 made

57
Q

What does the reduced NAD produced during glycolysis go on to do?

A

Donates an electron in the electron transport chain, so more ATP is produced

58
Q

Where does the link reaction occur?

A

In the matrix of the mitochondrion

59
Q

Stages of the link reaction

A

1.) pyruvate diffuses down its concentration gradient into the mitochondrial matrix
2.) pyruvate is decarboxylated by the enzyme decarboxylase (loses carbon)
3.) releases CO2
4.) pyruvate is also dehydrogenated (loses hydrogen) by the enzyme dehydrogenase
5.) releases 2 hydrogen atoms to form 2C Acetate/acetyl
6.)2C acetate attaches to coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA
7.) hydrogen atoms released are once again picked up by NAD to form reduced NAD

60
Q

Amount of carbon in all glycolysis stages

A

6
6
6
3 3
3 3
3 3

61
Q

Amount of carbon in stages of the link reaction

A

3
2
2

62
Q

What does the reduced NAD produced during the link reaction do?

A

Donates an electron to the electron transport chain

63
Q

Number of carbons in the stages of the Krebs cycle

A

4C intermediate + Acetyl coenzyme A (2C)
6C
5C
4C
4C

64
Q

Name for losing C

A

Decarboxylation

65
Q

Name for losing hydrogen

A

Dehydrogenation

66
Q

Why is little ATP produced directly during the Krebs cycle?

A

Most is produced by electron transfer chain through NADH2 and FADH2

67
Q

Reduced cofactors during Krebs cycle

A

NADH2
FADH2

68
Q

How much ATP does NADH2 phosphorylate when transferring an electron?

A

3

69
Q

How much ATP does FADH2 phosphorylate when transferring an electron?

A

2

70
Q

Stages of the Krebs cycle

A

1.) Acetyl Coenzyme A (CoA) enters the Krebs cycle, combining with a 4 carbon acid to form a 6 carbon compound, and the CoA is regenerated
2.) the 6 carbon acid is dehydrogeated, making reduced NAD and decarboxylated to make CO2 and a 5 carbon acid
3.) the 5 carbon acid is dehydrogenated, making reduced NAD and FAD and decarboxylated to make CO2 and to regenerate the 4 carbon acid
4.) the 4 carbon acid can come in with more AcCoA and repeat the cycle

71
Q

Why do we calculate yields of 2 link reactions and 2 Kreb cycles when considering 1 glucose molecule?

A

Everything is doubled from the glycolysis of 1 glucose molecule

72
Q

NADH2 produced during glycolysis, the link reaction and Krebs cycle

A

2, 2, 6
=10

73
Q

FADH2 produced during glycolysis, the link reaction and Krebs cycle

A

0, 0, 2
=2

74
Q

ATP equivalent of 10 NADH2

A

30

75
Q

ATP equivalent of 2 FADH2

A

4

76
Q

How many ATP are produced using only substrate level phosphorylation during glycolysis, the link reaction and Krebs cycle?

A

Only 2 ATP

77
Q

Which is more efficient - aerobic or anaerobic respiration? Why?

A

Aerobic
More ATP is produced as the electron transport chain is used

78
Q

What happens to the rest of the available energy from respiration?

A

Lost as heat

79
Q

Why are we warm blooded?

A

The rest of the available energy from respiration is lost as heat

80
Q

Name 2 other respiratory substrates

A

Fats
Amino acids

81
Q

What are fats converted into?

A

Glycerol
Long-chain fatty acids

82
Q

Glycerol (from fat) involvement as a respiratory substrate

A

Converted into 3C triose phosphate, an intermediate in glycolysis

83
Q

Fatty acids (from fat) involvement as respiratory substrates

A

Split into 2C acetate fragments, which enter the Krebs cycle as acetyl coenzyme A

84
Q

What’s the order in which substrates are used for energy?

A

First - carbohydrates
Fats
Last - amino acids

85
Q

What would a high protein diet lead to?

A

An excess of amino acids

86
Q

What happens to excess amino acids from a high protein diet?

A

Metabolised in the liver
Deaminated (their amino group is removed and converted into ammonia)
The remaining portion of the molecule is converted into Keto-acid which then enters glycolysis or the Krebs cycle

87
Q

Urea

A

Nitrogenous waste in urine

88
Q

Deaminated amino acids

A

Amino group is removed and converted into ammonia

89
Q

What do we always need to remember to do when NAD is reduced in a reaction?

A

That something was dehydrogenated
(Catalysed by dehydrogenase)

90
Q

Function of circular DNA in mitochondria

A

Codes for proteins
Allows mitochondria to replicate

91
Q

Which substrate is used as a long term energy store in the body and why?

A

Fats
When it’s broken down, it releases lots of energy as you get multiple Krebs cycles from one fatty acid chain

92
Q

What’s the remaining part of an amino acid like when the amino group has been removed?

A

A carbohydrate

93
Q

Where does Krebs cycle occur?

A

Matrix of the mitochondria

94
Q

Where does Krebs cycle occur?

A

In the matrix of the mitochondria

95
Q

Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur?

A

In the inner mitochondrial membrane

96
Q

Example of animal cells which can respire anaerobically

A

Muscle cells

97
Q

What occurs during anaerobic respiration in animal cells?

A

Lactic acid fermentation

98
Q

What’s the first stage of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration?

A

Glycolysis

99
Q

Lactic acid fermentation

A

1.) glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate
2.) reduced NAD transfer the hydrogen to pyruvate to reduce it to lactate
3.) NAD+ feeds back to pick up the hydrogen in glycolysis to be reduced again

100
Q

What’s lactate also known as?

A

Lactic acid

101
Q

Why is lactic acid fermentation not the preferred method of respiration in animal cells?

A

It produced less ATP

102
Q

When is lactic acid fermentation used? Give an example

A

Only in extreme situations (e.g - vigorous exercise)

103
Q

Why is lactic acid fermentation used during vigorous exercise?

A

The O2 supply to muscles isn’t sufficient, so cells respire anaerobically for short term ATP production

104
Q

Is lactic acid fermentation reversible?

A

Yes, if oxygen becomes available

105
Q

The amount of oxygen needed to remove the lactic acid built up during lactic acid fermentation

A

Oxygen debt

106
Q

What occurs during anaerobic respiration in plants or fungi?

A

Alcohol fermentation

107
Q

What does lactic acid fermentation occur in?

A

Animal cells

108
Q

What does alcohol fermentation occur in?

A

Plants or fungi

109
Q

Alcohol fermentation

A

1.) glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate
2.) pyruvate is decarboxylated to ethanal
3.) reduced NAD transfers the hydrogen to ethanal to reduce it to ethanol
4.) NAD+ feeds back to pick up the hydrogen in glycolysis to be reduced again

110
Q

What is used to produce alcoholic drinks? How come?

A

Alcohol fermentation
Ethanol = alcohol
CO2 released = carbonated drink

111
Q

Is alcohol fermentation reversible? Why?

A

No - the ethanol Is toxic and will eventually kill cells

112
Q

How many ATP per molecule of glucose are produced under anaerobic conditions?

A

2

113
Q

What can the respiratory quotient be used for?

A

As a way of determining which substrate an organism is using in respiration (e.g - glucose or lipids)

114
Q

What can we use to determine which substrate an organism is using in respiration?

A

Respiratory quotient (RQ)

115
Q

What do we need to know to work out a respiratory quotient?

A

Number of O2 molecules consumed
Number of CO2 molecules produced

116
Q

Respiratory quotient (RQ) equation

A

Number of molecules of CO2 produced
———————————————————
Number of molecules of O2 used

117
Q

RQ of glucose when used as a substrate in respiration + why

A

1
Equal volumes of O2 and CO2 are consumed and produced respectively

118
Q

RQ of lipids when used a substrate in respiration + why

A

Less than 1
Not equal volumes of O2 and CO2 are consumed and produced respectively - more O2 used than CO2 produced

119
Q

What generates more energy per unit mass - respiration of lipids or respiration of glucose derived from glycogen in the liver and muscle cells?

A

Lipids

120
Q

Glycogen

A

Stored glucose

121
Q

In which cels is glucose derived from glycogen?

A

Liver and muscle cells

122
Q

What’s the difference between when glucose and lipids are the respiratory substrate during respiration?

A

Less O2 is consumed and less CO2 is produced when glucose is the respiratory substrate

123
Q

How is energy stored in the liver?

A

Glycogen

124
Q

Why is energy stored as glycogen in the liver as opposed to fat?

A

Less O2 is consumed and less CO2 is produced when glucose is the respiratory substrate

125
Q

What’s the benefit of having lipids as a respiratory substrate?

A

They generate more metabolic water during respiration, which is essential for some desert organisms

126
Q

Which substrates do cells usually use in respiration?

A

A combination of both fats and glucose

127
Q

What is the value of RQ usually between and why?

A

0.7 and 1
Cells usually respire using a combination of both fats and glucose
(Fats RQ = about 0.7)
(Glucose RQ = 1)

128
Q

When using the “number of molecules” in the respiratory quotient equation, which numbers are we looking at?

A

The big ones in front

129
Q

What’s the difference between NAD and FAD?

A

NAD -> gives electrons to the first proton pump

FAD -> gives electrons to the second proton pump, so less protons are pumped and so less ATP is produced

130
Q

What is it that determines whether pyruvate is converted to lactate or CoA?

A

The oxygen availability

131
Q

What do we always need to remember to do when talking about respiration?

A

Say whether it’s aerobic or anaerobic

132
Q

What happens to energy that’s not converted into ATP?

A

Released as heat

133
Q

Which bond is broken when proteins are hydrolysed?

A

Peptide bond

134
Q

How is an amino group converted into ammonia and then urea?

A

By combining with CO2

135
Q

Where does deamination of amino acids occur?

A

In the liver

136
Q

When do we use the chi^2 test and when do we use the students t-test?

A

Chi^2 : to see whether data is as expected and to compare categorical variables, can use with any type of distribution
t-test : to compare the mean of two given samples (normal distribution only)

A level Biology (26 decks)

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