Unit 1.1 - inorganic ions and carbohydrates Flashcards
Which four inorganic ions are in living organisms? (include their symbols please lol)
Magnesium, Iron, Phosphate and Calcium
Mg2+ Fe2+ PO42- Ca2+
Which molecule is magnesium an essential component for?
Chlorophyll
What does clorophyll do?
Is a key part of photosynthesis by trapping lights energy
Where is iron found within the body?
The haemoglobin in the blood
Why do we need enough iron in our diets? Give two reasons.
1 - to replace red blood cells as their life spans are temporary
2 - To avoid Anemia
How do we give plants their phosphate?
Compost
Where are phosphates found?
In the plasma membrane (as part of the phospholipid molecule), in nucleic acids and in ATP
Where do plants and humans get their inorganic ions?
Plants - soil
Humans - food
Why is calcium an important inorganic ion?
Gives strength to teeth and bones, as well as plant cell walls
What can Carbon be described as?
The foundation of biological molecules
What is Carbons valeance? What does this mean for it?
4, meaning it can form covalent bonds with up to 4 other atoms
What kind of structures can carbon form and what bigger thing does this form?
Straight, branched or closed chains, forming the skeleton of many biological molecules
What do all carbohydrates contain?
Oxygen, Carbon and Hydrogen
What do you call a basic unit of carbohydrates?
Monosaccharide
What’s the phrase for two monosaccherides?
Disaccheride
What’s the phrase for multiple monosaccherides?
Polysaccheride
What are polysaccherides a type of?
Polymer
What’s so special about monosaccherides and why is this the case?
They’re the building blocks for other larger carbohydrates, as they’re sweet and soluble
What’s the general formula of monosaccherides?
CH20
How can monosaccherides be grouped?
Based off of how many Carbon atoms they contain
How do we work out the formula for any type of monosaccheride?
Multiply everything inside the bracket by whatever the number is (the number of carbon atoms in it)
What are three types of monosaccheride sugars and how many carbon atoms are present in these?
Triose —–> 3
Pentose —-> 5
Hexose —–> 6
Give an example of a triose, pentose and a hexose monosaccheride
triose —-> pyruvate
pentose –> ribose
hexose —-> glucose
What do carbon atoms of monosaccherides do when dissolved in water?
Form a ring
They can alter their bindings to make straight chains with ring chains in equilibrum
What are glucoses isomers?
alffa (a-) and beta (B-)
What’s the difference between alpha and beta glucose monosaccharides?
The positioning of the OH (hydroxide) and H (hydrogen)
On the alpha molecule, the H is on top and vice versa
How does numbering the carbons on a monosaccheride work?
Carbon 1 is the one connected to the oxygen, then work clockwise from there
What does the tiny difference between the alffa and beta glucose molecules mean for them?
they act differently when making new substances
What is the triose monosaccheride important for?
Metabolism, respiration and photosynthesis
What is the pentose monosaccheride important for?
Parts of neuclotides ( eg - deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA, ATP and ADP)
What are hexose monosaccherides important for?
A key example is glucose, which is a source of energy in respiration.
C-C and C-H bonds are broken to release this energy, which is tranferred to create adenosine triphophate (ATP)
What’s the key function of ALL of the monosaccherides?
They’re the building blocks for larger molecules
Which polysaccherides does the hexose monosaccheride glucose make?
Starch, glycogen, cellulose and chitin
How do disaccharides form?
Two monosaccherides react, forming a glycosidic bond through the elimination of water in a condensation reaction
What’s the type of bond in a dissacharide?
glycosidic bond
What type of reaction is required for a disaccharide to form?
Condensation reaction (to remove water)
Three examples of disaccharides involving glucose and their formations
glucose + glucose –> maltose
glucose + fructose –> sucrose
glucose + galactose –> lactose
Where does nature get its maltose?
Germinating seeds
Where does nature get its lactose?
Milk
Where does nature get its sucrose?
Sugar and fruits
What’s the opposite reaction of a condensation reaction? How does this work?
Hydrolysis is where water is added. As it’s a metabolite, it can take part in metabolic reactions, like breaking glycosidic bonds in disaccharides
What’s important to remember when writing the equations of disaccharides formed from monosaccharides? Why?
To write the water molecule separately, taking 2 H’s and a single 0 from the expected formula, as a condensation reaction was required for it to form in the first place
What type of reaction is condensation?
Polymerisation, where monomers and joined to create a polymer
What does hydrolysis do in terms of polymerisation?
Breaks polymer bonds to release monomers
What do carbohydrates and proteins form polymers from?
Repeating monomer units
Name four polysaccherides and the molecule/monosaccheride which makes them up
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Chitin
What’s starch’s main purpose?
Allows plants to store glucose
What is starch made up of?
Glucose monomers
What are the benefits of starch polysaccherides?
Easily be added or removed
Compact
No osmotic effect on the cell
Which polysaccheride has two types? What are they?
Starch. They are…..
amylose
amylopectin
Describe amylose
Unbranched and coils
What type of glucose monomers are in amylose and what do they do?
Alpha glucose monomers
Each one added forms a C1-C4 glycoacidic bond with the adjacent glucose molecule
Describe amylopectin
Branched
What type of bonds does amylopectin form?
C1-C4 and C1-C6 glycosidic bonds
What makes starch a good storage polysaccheride?
Insoluble (no osmotic effect on the cell)
Easily hydrolysed to release glucose
What is the polysaccheride glycogens purpose?
Main storage product in animals
What can glycogen be compared to? What’s the same and what’s the main difference?
Amylopectin (type of starch polysaccharide)
Similar structure (glucose molecules held by glycoacidic bonds between C1-C4 and C1-C6)
Glycogen has shorter C1-C4 and more C1-C6 branch points (more branched)
What’s are the benefits that both starch and glycogen share?
Easily hydrolysed to a glucose, which is soluble
Can be transported wherever energy is needed
Which polysaccheride can be found in plant cell walls?
Cellulose
Where can the cellulose polysaccheride be found?
In plant cell walls
What is cellulose made up of?
Many long beta glucose units, joined by C1-C4 glycoacidic bonds
B bond rotates adjacent glucose molecules by 180 degrees, allowing hydrogen bonds to form between OH groups of adjacent cellulose chains
What do adjacent cellulose chains form?
Crossbridges
How many cellulose molecules are tightly cross linked?
60-70
What do crosslinking cellulose molecules create?
Microfibrils
What are microfibrils?
They’re bunched together in bundles to form fibres
What do microfibrils in cellulose give it? What’s this ideal for?
A high tensile strength, making it an ideal structural polysaccharide
Which polysaccaride is found in insect exo-skeletons and cell walls of fungi?
Chitin
Where is the polysaccharide Chitin found?
In insect exo-skeletons and cell walls of fungi
What’s the polysaccharide chitin made up of?
Beta glucose molecules and some hydroxide groups replaced with nitrogen - containing acetylamine groups
What type of groups does chitin contain due to the nitrogen replacing some hydroxide groups?
Acetylamine groups
What’s the benefit of the polysaccheride chitin? Which other polysaccharide is this similar to?
The cross bonds (microfibrils) formed between polysaccharide chains give it structural stability, like cellulose
Where do all biochemical reactions take place?
In an aqueous solution
What sort of reactions all happen in an aqueous solution?
Biochemical reactions
Inorganic meaning
Not consisting or deriving from living matter
Name 4 phosphate containing atoms
ATP
Nucleic acid
Amino acids/Proteins
Chlorophyll
What are the most common lipids?
Triglycerides
What are triglycerides?
Fats and oils
What do lipids contain?
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen (low contents of oxygen)
Which element in lipids is low in content?
Oxygen
What have the same contents as lipids?
Carbohydrates
What happens to triglycerides in water? Why?
Insoluble as they’re non-polar
What are triglycerides soluble in?
Ethanol, Cloroform, Ether
How are triglycerides formed?
A condensation reaction between glycerol and fatty acids
What’s glycerol?
A type of alcohol (part of the condensation reaction to form triglycerides)
What are the fatty acids required to make triglycerides?
Organic molecules which have a -COOH group attached to a long hydrocarbon tail
What is the name of the bond formed in the condensation reaction to form triglycerides?
Ester bond
How can ester bonds be broken?
Through hydrolysis
How many ester bonds are in triglycerides?
3
How many water molecules are removed in a condensation reaction to form triglycerides?
3
What are the types of fatty acids?
Saturated and unsaturated
What are the characteristics of saturated fatty acids?
-No double bonds between neighbouring carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon tail
-Carries the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms
-Solid (saturated)
Which lipids tend to be saturated?
Animal lipids
What are the characteristics of unsaturated fatty acids?
-Double bond between carbon atoms in neighbouring hydrocarbon chains (=melt more easily- most oils are unsaturated)
-Don’t carry the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
What makes fatty acids and lipids melt more easily? What are most oils therefore?
Double bonds, so most oils are unsaturated as these have double bonds
What do you call an unsaturated fat molecule with one double bond between carbon atoms?
monounsaturated
What do you call an unsaturated fat molecule with more than two double bonds between carbon atoms?
Polyunsaturated
Describe animal fats
-High proportion of saturated fatty acids
-Solid at room temperature
Describe plant lipids
-Unsaturated fatty acids
-Liquid at room temperature (oils)
Triglycerides uses
-Protect internal organs from physical damage
-Insulate the body from heat loss
-Long-term energy store
What are the effects of a high fat diet on our health?
Stroke, high blood pressure, kidney failure, being overweight, heart attacks+disease
Where are the coronary arteries?
In the heart
What’s the name of the arteries in the heart?
Coronary arteries
What are LDL and HDL?
Cholesterol
What does LDL do in the coronary arteries?
Stick to the artery walls, forming plaque
What does HDL do in the coronary arteries?
Carries LDL away from the artery walls
What are phospholipids?
A special type of lipid
What is special about phospholipids?
One of the three fatty acid chains is replaced by a phosphate group, which is polar, making it soluble in water
What’s special about phosphate groups?
They’re polar, making them soluble in water
What features does a phospholipid have?
-Hydrophilic head
-2 Hydrophobic fatty tails
Describe the structure of a phospholipid
Glycerol
2 fatty acids
Phosphate group
What are the functions of phospholipids?
-Component of cell membranes
-Lipid transport as part of lipoproteins
Name two important structures that phospholipids make up
-Phospholipid bilayer
-Plasma membrane
Food sources of phospholipids
Egg yolks, liver, soybeans and peanuts
What do proteins contain?
The usual carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
PLUS (making them different to carbohydrates and lipids)
nitrogen
possibly - phosphorus and sulphur
What are proteins?
Polymers made from the monomers, amino acids
What do you call a chain of amino acids?
Polypeptide
How many different amino acids are there?
20
What determines a proteins function?
Its shape
How many different proteins are there?
Thousands, with its shape determined by a specific sequence of amino acids in the chain
What do amino acids in the chain determine in a protein?
Its shape
What type of carbon is in the center of an amino acid?
Alpha carbon
What makes up the amino group in an amino acid (formula) ?
NH2-
Describe the amino group in an amino acid
Can be basic or alkaline
What’s the carboxyl group made up of in an amino acid?
COOH
Describe the carboxyl group in an amino acid
Acidic
What’s the simplest amino acid make up?
Glycine, with the variable R as a H
What are the three groups on an amino acids structure?
Amino group, carboxyl group, variable group
What are the two varieties of amino acids?
Essential and nonessential
How do we get our essential amino acids?
Cannot be synthesized by our bodies, therefore from our diets
How do we get non-essential amino acids?
Can be synthesized by our bodies
What does a buffer do?
Maintain the pH of a reaction
How are peptide bonds formed in proteins?
Through a condensation reaction
What are peptide bonds formed between?
Amino acids
What do you call two amino acids joined together by a peptide bond?
Dipeptide
How would you break the peptide bond between amino acids?
Hydrolysis (add water)
What are the different possible protein structures?
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary
Type of bonds in the primary protein structure
Peptide
Describe the primary protein structure
Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain, bonded with peptide bonds. The sequence is determined by the DNA, with one gene coding for 1 polypeptide.
What is the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain determined by and how?
The DNA, with each gene coding for 1 polypeptide
What type of bonds are present in the secondary protein structure?
Peptide and hydrogen
Describe the secondary protein structure
How the polpeptide twists to form an alpha helix or folds to form a beta pleated sheet, held by hydrogen bonds
What are the two possibilities with a secondary protein structure?
Alpha helix or a beta folded sheet
Describe the tertiary protein structure
Occurs when certain attractions are present between alpha helices and beta pleated sheets. They fold in a specific way to form a definite 3D structure which is more complex and compact. This is maintained by disulphide, ionic, hydrophobic and hydrogen bonds.
What type of bonds are present in the tertiary protein structure?
Disulphide, ionic, hydrophobic interactions (not bonds!) and hydrogen bonds (and peptide!)
Describe disulphide bonds
One of the strongest and most important bonds between proteins, which occur between two cysteine amino acids
What does a disulphide bond appear between?
Two cysteine amino acids
Which type of bond is involved in all levels of structure?
Hydrogen bonds
Where are hydrophobic interactions present?
Between non-polar sections of the protein
Which protein structure do enzymes have?
Tertiary protein structure
Why do enzymes have the tertiary protein structure?
Maintains the shape of its active site
Describe the quantenary protein structure
A protein consisting of more than one polypeptide chain in tertiary form, associated with non-protein groups
Which protein structure is associated with non-protein groups?
Quaternary protein structure
Name an example protein which has the quaternary protein structure
Haemoglobin
Describe haemoglobin
-Quaternary protein structure
-4 polypeptide chains (4 genes)
-Center of each chain - iron containing group, haem
-Complex
What is at the center of each chain in a haemoglobin?
The iron containing group, haem
What’s so odd about phospholipids?
One end is soluble in water and the other isn’t
What’s special about the hydrophillic head of the phospholipids?
It’s polar - interacts with water
What’s so special about phospholipids two hydrophobic fatty tails?
They’re non-polar - do not interact with water
Which part of a phospholipid is polar and which is non-polar?
Hydrophillic head - polar
Hydrophobic fatty tails - non-polar
What type of bonds does carbon form?
Covalent
Which type of bond did I originally spell wrong a few times before and need to remember?
Glycosidic bonds
What type of bond is used to form a disaccharide?
1-4 glycosidic bond
What’s the difference between the two isomers of glucose?
The positioning of the H and the OH by the C-1 atom
Why is it good that starch is insoluble?
Lots of soluble substances would cause the cell to swell and burst
What’s an appropriate description of amyloses structure?
Alpha helix
Why is it good that amylopectin and glycogen are branched?
They can release lots of glucose quickly as there’s lots of ends for enzymes to react simultaneously
What type of substances can you see the most clearly through a microscope? What’s an example of one?
Insoluble ones like starch
Why is glycogen more branched than amylopectin?
Animals need energy faster than animals
What are microfibrils ideal for?
The cell wall structure
What type of glycosidic bond forms between two monosaccharides?
B (1-4)
What can a -COOH group be described as?
Carboxyl group
What does non-polar actually mean?
That there’s no charges on the outside of the molecule
Which type of fatty acid could make more hydrogen bonds?
Unsaturated as there’s double bonds
Which type of fatty acid has a bend in the chain and why?
Unsaturated, as a result of the double bond
What type of fatty acid is the easiest to digest?
Polyunsaturated
Which type of fatty acid is better for our general health?
Polyunsaturated
Example of a saturated fatty acid
Butyric acid
Example of a monounsaturated fatty acid
Oleic acid
Example of a polyunsaturated fatty acid
Linoleic acid
What’s the layer of fat that the triglycerides form?
Adipose layer
What can your genetics give you a high level of?
HDL
What can give you higher levels of HDL?
genetics
What is the name for the plaque formation by LDL in the blood cells? What can this cause?
Artheroma
Block up blood vessels and cause heart attacks
What’s the only way phospholipid can survive in the water environment in the cytoplasm?
The formation of the phospholipid bilayer
What are sucrose/maltose/lactose?
Molecules
What are hexose/pentose/triose?
Types of monosaccharide
What are alpha and beta to glucose?
Forms of glucose
Fructose structure
Hexagon, the exact same formula as glucose, just the CH20H is in two places
Galactose structure
Like glucose but Flipped HO and H at C-4
Ribose structure
Like glucose but with 5 carbons
Deoxiribose structure
Hydroxide group replaced with hydrogen (hence the name) - 5 carbon atoms
Why does amylose coil?
Due to the formation of hydrogen bonds
Why is chitin not a true carbohydrate?
It includes nitrogen
How many layers do phospholipids form in a cell membrane?
Bilayer = double layer
How many layers do phospholipids form in water?
Single layer
Which part of an amino acid could form a disulphide bond?
Variable (R)
Which part of an amino acid gives it acidic properties?
Carboxyl group
Which part of an amino acid gives it basic or alkaline properties?
Amino group
How could two isomers of a protein molecule be produced by the same reactants?
Different amino acid with free amino/carboxylic acid in each dipeptide
How many polypeptide chains are in the tertiary protein structure?
Only 1
What does a quaternary protein structure form?
2+ polypeptides form a functional molecule
What’s the difference between adipose and artheroma (I’ve gotten confused between them in past questions)?
Adipose layer - layer of fat formed by triglycerides
Artheroma- plaque formation by LDL
Which elements join together in a peptide bond between amino acids?
C and N (let the O and the H be attached to them)
Why are triglycerides not considered polymers?
Glycerol and fatty acids have different structures
(don’t just give a reference to monomers)
What does the fact that unsaturated fatty acids don’t contain the maximum amount of hydrogen atoms mean for them?
They’re not fully saturated
Where do the double bonds form in the hydrocarbon chain of fatty acids?
Between C=C
What type of insulation do triglycerides give us?
Thermal
Describe insects’ exo skeletons thanks to chitin?
strong and tough
What reaction is required to break bonds?
Hydrolysis
Lipid uses in plants
-Energy storage
-Leaf waterproofing
-Membrane structure
What’s it important to do if a question asks us to “name” an element?
Write it out in full, not just the letter
Name a COMPARISON between the saturated and unsaturated fatty acid chains
Fewer hydrogen bonds in the unsaturated chain
How do you know a triglyceride IS a triglyceride and to label it this instead of a lipid?
THREE glycerol molecules and THREE fatty acid chains and THREE ester bonds
What do I do in a question asking to explain why a protein has a quaternary structure?
State what I see
e.g - four polypeptide chains, of two alpha and two beta subunits in tertiary form combined
What are alpha helices maintained by?
Hydrogen bonds
Which bonds maintain the 3D shape of a polypeptide structure?
-Disulphide
-Ionic
-Hydrogen
-Hydrophobic interactions
(don’t say peptide here)
What are alpha and beta NOT?
Molecules
What’s a clue to a question referring to hydrolysis, not condensation?
“Breaking down” or “breaking” bonds
What are the key elements present as inorganic ions in living organisms?
Mg2+, Fe2+, Ca2+ and Po43-
Name two examples of things proteins are important in
-In cell membranes
-Form antibodies to fight disease
What do the 20 different amino acids do?
Give proteins different chemical properties
What can amino acids also act as in terms of pH?
Buffers
What does the zwitterion amino acid have? How?
A neutral pH and a positive and negative charge as the amino acid has either picked up an extra electron in an acidic solution or lost one in an alkaline solution
Which amino acid has a neutral pH and a positive and a negative charge?
Zwitterion
What does the amino group on an amino acid do in an acidic solution?
picks up an extra hydrogen to form a neutral zwitterion
What does the carboxyl group in an amino acid do in alkaline solution?
Loses the extra hydrogen to form a neutral zwitterion
How do you figure out the amount of amino acids in a protein diagram?
Count the peptide bonds (N-C=O)
One more amino acid
What does the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain effect?
The properties and nature of the finished protein
What are the types of bond on a secondary protein structure and between what?
Hydrogen bonds between amino acids
Hydrophobic…what?
Interactions
NOT bonds
Which type of bond do we not mention in the tertiary protein structure that MAINTAINS the 3D shape?
Peptide bond
Describe the tertiary protein form
Globular
Which protein structure is globular?
Teritary
What do hydrophobic interactions do?
Try to fold into themselves inside the molecule to not be in the outside where they could come into contact with water
What type of bond is the disulphide bond?
Covalent
What do disulphide bonds appear between?
Two cysteine (S-S) amino acids
What do cysteine molecules contain?
Sulphur
Which bond is most important in maintaining the shape of protein molecules and why?
Disulphide bonds as they are strong covalent bond
Where does a disulphide bond form between two cysteine amino acids?
Between sulphur atoms
What does haemoglobin contain and what is this?
Haem- a prosthetic, inorganic group
What do the four protein structures have?
Functional properties
What are fibrous and globular proteins?
Structural proteins
What type of amino acid doesn’t work anymore?
Denatured
Compare the solubility of globular vs fibrous proteins
Globular - partly/wholly soluble
Fibrous - Insoluble
Compare the shapes of globular and fibrous proteins
Globular - 3D structure formed by folding the 2° structure
Fibrous - Twisted into a rope like fibre
Example of a globular protein
Haemoglobin
Examples of fibrous proteins
Collagen and Elastin
Amount of polypeptide molecules in globular and fibrous proteins
Globular - 4
Fibrous - 3
Difference between the polypeptide molecules themselves in globular and fibrous proteins + genes needed to code for them
Globular - each polypeptide is different = 4 genes needed to code for
Fibrous - Each is the same (1 gene to code for)
Name for non-protein groups
Haem groups
Which type of protein is associated with non-protein groups?
Globular (not fibrous)
Compare the highest level of protein structure in globular and fibrous proteins
Globular - quaternary
Fibrous - secondary
What do you call an amino acid that doesn’t work anymore?
Denatured
Denatured amino acid
Doesn’t work anymore
Where is the fibrous protein collagen found?
In the skin
Where is the fibrous protein elastin found?
In connective tissues
Describe collagen (4)
- alpha helix
-tensile strength
-flexible
-elastic
Why do we form wrinkles when we get older?
Our skin produces less collagen, so the skin gets less flexible
What is a lack of collagen responsible for?
Wrinkles
Keratin
Fibrous protein found in connective tissue
Why is it important to eat a varied diet?
As some essential amino acids cannot be synthesised by our bodies and therefore have to be provided by our diets. Without them, we will become malnourished as we need all 20 amino acids for necessary proteins
Which group picks up an extra hydrogen in an acidic solution to form a zwitterion?
Amino group
Which group loses the extra hydrogen in an alkaline solution to form a zwitterion?
Carboxyl group
In what type of solution does the amino group of an amino acid pick up an extra hydrogen to form a zwitterion?
Acidic
In what type of solution does the carboxyl group lose the extra hydrogen to form a zwitterion?
Alkaline
How are zwitterions actually formed?
In an acidic solution, the amino group of an amino acid picks up an extra hydrogen
In an alkaline solution, the carboxyl group loses a hydrogen
This forms a zwitterion that has both a positive and a negative charge and is an example of amino acids acting as buffers that maintain the pH of a solution
Important points on disulphide bonds
In tertiary protein structure - one of the strongest and most important bonds (covalent, maintains 3D shape)
Between two cysteine amino acids (S-S)
Reducing sugar
Is able to donate an electron to reduce another compound
When drawing the charges on hydrogen and oxygen atoms for water, what must we put with them?
Little weird d symbol to show how small the charges are on their own
Compare the resistance that cellulose and chitin have to water?
Cellulose - gaps between fibres makes it freely permeable to water
Chitin - more waterproof
What forms microfibrils in cellulose and chitin?
Hydrogen bonds
Name one of the properties of an unsaturated fatty acid due to its number of C-H bonds
-More than carbohydrates
-Liberate twice as much energy as carbohydrates
-Function as an energy reserve in plants
What causes unsaturated fatty acids to function as energy reserves in plants?
High numbers of C-H bonds (librate twice as much energy as carbohydrates)
What happens to a non-reducing sugar if its hydrolysed?
Forms a reducing sugar
What does haemoglobin do?
It’s a transport protein - it carries oxygen
How many different polypeptide chains does haemoglobin consist of and what are these?
2
2 alpha and 2 beta
Name two differences between the Golgi Body and the rough endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body
-Packaging + assembling glycoproteins
R.E.R
-Storing + protein synthesis
What does a phospholipid form in comparison to water and what does this give it?
A bilayer, instead of a single layer
Covers 2x the surface area
How much more/less surface area does the phospholipid bilayer cover in a cell in comparison to water?
2x more (its a bilayer)
What does unsaturated fat affect the levels of?
HDL and LDL
How does unsaturated fat affect HDL and LDL levels?
HDL - increases
LDL - decreases
What’s the main function of triglycerides in cells?
As an energy store
(the other two are more fat cells, not triglycerides themselves)
What do we circle when circling the R-group in amino acids?
The r group and the entire bit attached to it
What does an increased level of LDL in lead to and where?
Artheroma in the arteries
Which inorganic ion is important in plant cell walls?
Calcium
What are all monosaccharides?
Reducing sugars
Which group of components are all reducing sugars?
Monosaccharides
What are the only elements in polysaccharides?
C, O and H
What does cohesion tension occur between and how?
Between H20 molecules - hydrogen bonding between H (delta plus) and O (delta minus)
What’s the nitrate source used for?
N source for…
Protein
Nucleic acid
ATP
Amino acids
Is water organic and why?
No because it doesn’t contain carbon
What does water not containing carbon make it?
Inorganic
What makes something organic?
Containing carbon
Name 5 phosphate containing compounds
Protein
Nuclei acids
ATP
Amino acids
Chlorophyll
How can we recognise a nucleic acid from a diagram?
Pentose shape
What does a Pentose shape imply in a diagram?
Nucleic acid
What does glycogen store in animals?
Glucose
How is glucose stored in animals?
With glycogen
A high proportion of which type of fatty acid can lead to an increase in LDL (“bad” Cholestrol)?
Saturated fatty acids
What can an increased amount of LDL in the artery walls lead to?
Cardiovascular disease
What does the fact that triglycerides are insoluble make them?
Osmotically inert
What provides the most energy - triglycerides or starch and why?
Triglycerides as they contain a high number of C-H bonds that are also stronger, therefore they liberate twice as much energy as the carbohydrate
Why does starch have no osmotic effect on a cell?
It’s insoluble
What does the fact that starch is insoluble mean?
It has no osmotic effect on the cell
What’s strongest - peptide bonds or hydrogen bonds?
Peptide bonds
Why is water a polar molecule?
H has a slight positive charge and O has a slight negative charge
How do the inorganic ions enter root tissue?
Active transport
Where specifically in a plant does calcium strengthen?
Plant cell walls
What is the main thing LDL increases the risk of?
Artheroma in the arteries
Why does artheroma increase the risk of a heart attack?
Reduced blood supply to heart muscle
Which glucose isomer is galactose similar to?
Alpha
