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A level Biology > Unit 1.2 - Cell structure and organisation > Flashcards

Unit 1.2 - Cell structure and organisation Flashcards

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1
Q

What does cell theory state?

A

That all organisms are composed of cells

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2
Q

What are cells?

A

The basic unit of life

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3
Q

What can organisms be (out of two options)?

A

Unicellular or multicellular

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4
Q

Examples of unicellular organisms

A

-Amoeba
-Bacteria

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5
Q

Examples of multicellular organisms

A

-Plants
-Animals

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6
Q

What’s the first cell that all cells came from?

A

The zygote

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7
Q

What’s important about the zygote?

A

It’s the first cell that all cells came from

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8
Q

What is an embryo all made up of?

A

Undifferentiated stem cells

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9
Q

Name a cell that contains all undifferentiated stem cells

A

Embryo

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10
Q

What do new cells arise from?

A

Pre-existing cells

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11
Q

What do specialised cells arise from?

A

Undifferentiated stem cells

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12
Q

What type of cell arises from undifferentiated stem cells?

A

Specialised cells

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13
Q

What type of cell arises from pre-existing cells?

A

New cells

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14
Q

Specialised cell

A

A cell with a particular function in the organism

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15
Q

Stem cell

A

A cell that has the potential to divide into any kind of specialised cell

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16
Q

Give two examples + brief descriptions of specialised cells

A

-Muscle cells are made up of short fibres that shorten and contract to move the joints
-White blood cells destroy pathogens

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17
Q

What has led to us understanding the ultra structure of cells?

A

Advances in microscopy

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18
Q

What has advantages in microscopy led to us being able to do?

A

Understand the ultra structure of cells

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19
Q

Ultra structure of a cell

A

What’s inside it

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20
Q

What is the big recent advance in microscopy?

A

The electron microscope

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21
Q

Why is an electron microscope better than a light microscope?

A

Magnifies much more

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22
Q

Name two types of microscope in order of strength of magnification, starting with the weakest

A

-Light
-Electron

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23
Q

Disadvantage of the electron microscope

A

No colours

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24
Q

How does the electron microscope work?

A

Electron gun fires them out into a vacuum so that it molecules don’t effect them

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25
Q

Name four relevant units of measurement to this unit and how we transfer between them

A

metre (m)
| x1000
\/
millimetre (mm)
|x1000
\/
micrometre (weird-ńm)
|x1000
\/
nanometre (nm)

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26
Q

Which unit is most commonly used with cells?

A

The micrometre

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27
Q

What is the number used to transfer between units in this unit?

A

1000
(multiply or divide when relevant)

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28
Q

How many metres is one nanometre?

A

10^-9m

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29
Q

What type of scale can we use to measure from pretty big things to tiny things?

A

Logarithmic scale

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30
Q

What’s a logarithmic scale?

A

A way of displaying data over a wide range in a compact way

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31
Q

Out of those 13 items on the logarithmic scale, place them in order from smallest to largest

A

(Check your notes)

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32
Q

What are all cells surrounded by?

A

A membrane made of phospholipids and proteins (thin in biological membranes)

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33
Q

What is thin in biological membranes?

A

The membrane of phospholipids and proteins surrounding the cells

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34
Q

Name the two types of cells

A

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic

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35
Q

What are the features of eukaryotic cells?

A

-Have a nucleus
-Have membrane bound organelles
-Can include plant and animal cells

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36
Q

What type of cells are plant and animal cells?

A

Eukaryotic

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37
Q

Organelles

A

A specialised structure with a specific function in a cell
(Enclosed in the cytoplasm)

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38
Q

What do membranes provide?

A

-A large surface area for the attachment of enzymes involved in metabolic processes
-A transport system inside a cell

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39
Q

What are the advantages of having membrane bound organelles?

A

-Potentially harmful chemicals like enzymes are isolated
-Molecules with particular functions (chlorophyll, for example) can be concentrated in one area

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40
Q

Size of an average animal cell

A

10-30 micrometres (weird mm)

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41
Q

What is cytosol?

A

Fluid contained within the cytoplasm

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42
Q

I physically cannot think how to do this logically on a flash card - please just find an unlabelled animal cell on the internet and learn all of the bits - I know. I’m sorry.

A

Can’t help you here

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43
Q

Find and label a generalised plant cell on the internet - I know. I wish I could make it go away.

A

Sorry love

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44
Q

Size of a generalised plant cell

A

10 - 100 micrometres (weird mm)

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45
Q

What is leucoplast?

A

Starch storage in plant cells

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46
Q

What does the cell wall do to a cell?

A

Prevents it from collapsing/swelling due to its water levels

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47
Q

What’s the site of photosynthesis in a plant cell?

A

Chloroplast

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48
Q

What’s the difference between plant and animal cells?

A

Plant cells have additional organelles and structures
E.g - chloroplasts for photosynthesis
-cellulose cell walls for support + to maintain turgor pressure
-Vacuole

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49
Q

What do plants’ cellulose cell walls do?

A

Support the plant cell and help maintain turgor pressure

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50
Q

What do prokaryotic cells have?

A

No membrane bound organelles

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51
Q

Which membrane bound organelles do prokaryotic cells not have?

A

-Nucleus
-Rough endoplasmic reticulum
-Golgi apparatus
-Mitochondria
-Chloroplasts

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52
Q

Give 2 examples of prokaryotic cells

A

Bacteria and archaea

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53
Q

Again, I’m sorry, but find and label a bacteria cell

A

Yep

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54
Q

What’s the size of a typical bacteria cell?

A

1-10 micrometres (weird mm)

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55
Q

What are 2 things that you label on the prokaryotic cell that’s unique to them?

A

Plasmids and mesosome

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56
Q

What are the things you’d label on a bacteria cell and not on the plants and animal cells?

A

-Flagellum
-Capsule
-Mesosome
-Nucleoid
-Pilus
-Plasmids

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57
Q

What does the nucleoid of a bacteria cell contain?

A

A long, circular DNA molecule

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58
Q

What type of cell wall does bacteria have?

A

Mucopolysaccharide (Murein)

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59
Q

What does the mesosome on a bacteria cell do?

A

Increases the surface area of the membrane to allow reactions to take place
+ For respiration

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60
Q

What’s the capsule on a bacteria cell for?

A

Formed of slime, to protect the cell from its environment

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61
Q

What does the Flagellum on a bacteria cell do?

A

Allows bacteria to move through its environment

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62
Q

Wha do the ribosomes on a bacteria cell do?

A

Manufacture Proteins inside the cell

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63
Q

What do the plasmids in a bacteria cell do?

A

As small bits of circular DNA, they carry genes that can be transferred from one cell to another

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64
Q

Compare Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells

A

(First listed are Eukaryotic cell features)
-Larger cells (10-100micrometres v.s 1-10micrometres)
-Ribosomes are larger and bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum v.s smaller and free in the cytoplasm
-Membrane bound organelles v.s none
-DNA contained to the Nucleus v.s free in the cytoplasm
-Nucleus has a double membrane v.s no nuclear membrane/double envelope
-No plasmids v.s plasmids
-Cell wall (when present) is composed of Cellulose or Chitin v.s composed of pectidoglycan (mucopolysaccharide)
-Mitochondria are used for aerobic respiration, not a mesosome v.s no Mitochondria, uses a mesosome (a folded region of the cell membrane) for aerobic respiration

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65
Q

Which cells are largest?

A

Eukaryotic (10-100 v.s 1-10 micro metres)

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66
Q

Compare the ribosomes in Eukaryotic cells and Prokaryotic cells

A

Euk - Larger and bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum
Pro - smaller and free in the cytoplasm

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67
Q

Compare the DNA in Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells

A

Euk - contained to the nucleus
Pro - free in the cytoplasm

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68
Q

Describe the nucleus in Eukaryotic v.s Prokaryotic cells

A

Euk - Has a double membrane
Pro - No nuclear envelope (double membrane)

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69
Q

Describe the differences in cell wall for the Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells

A

Euk - Cellulose or Chitin
Pro - Pectidoglycan (muccopolysaccharide)

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70
Q

Describe how Eukaryotic v.s Prokaryotic cells respire

A

Euk - Mitochondria are used (no mesosome)
Pro - No mitochondria, uses a mesosome (a folded region of the cell membrane)

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71
Q

What do Prokaryotic cells have that Eukaryotic cells don’t?

A

Plasmids and a mesosome

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72
Q

What do Eukaryotic cells have that Prokaryotic cells don’t?

A

Membrane bound organelles ( e.g - mitochondria)

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73
Q

What’s an appropriate way to describe a virus?

A

A complicated chemical

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74
Q

What are viruses to be referred to as?

A

Particles

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75
Q

Why are viruses not referred to as cells?

A

They don’t do the things that other living organisms do, like respire or reproduce

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76
Q

What kind of things do other living organisms do that viruses don’t?

A

Respire and reproduce

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77
Q

How do viruses reproduce?

A

Have to enter Prokaryotic/Eukaryotic cells and use their processes

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78
Q

What’s the average size of a virus particle?

A

0.1 micrometres (weird mm)

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79
Q

What are the three features to label on a virus particle?

A

-Nucleic acid (DNA/RNA)
-Surface proteins
-Protein coat (capsid)

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80
Q

What do the surface proteins of a virus particle help it do?

A

Gain entry into a host cell

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81
Q

Name for the protein coat of a virus particle

A

Capsid

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82
Q

What do viruses tend to be?

A

Very variable

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83
Q

Name 5 types of virus

A

-Adenovirus
-HIV
-Rabies virus
-Bacteriphage
-Influenza virus

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84
Q

Which type of virus is used in genetic engineering to transfer genes?

A

Adenovirus

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85
Q

What’s the Adenovirus used for?

A

Used in genetic engineering to transfer genes

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86
Q

What type virus can be transferred from mammals to humans? Why is this unusual?

A

The Rabies virus, as viruses usually only infect 1 species

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87
Q

Why is the Rabies virus unusual?

A

As it can be transferred from mammals to human and viruses usually only infect 1 species

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88
Q

Which virus infects bacteria?

A

Bacteriophage

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89
Q

What does bacteriophage do?

A

Infects bacteria

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90
Q

What do we know if the host cell is bacteria?

A

That the virus is bacteriophage

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91
Q

How will we know if the virus is bacteriophage?

A

The host cell is bacteria

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92
Q

Which type of virus causes the flu?

A

Influenza virus

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93
Q

What does the influenza virus do?

A

Causes the flu

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94
Q

How do viruses work?

A
  1. The viral genome enters the host cell and injects genetic material, instructing the cell to start making new viruses;
  2. Viral genome is replicated and transcribed - DNA is copied and used to make virus proteins (DNA - mRNA) : the virus has taken over the cell ;
  3. Viral mRNAs are translated and proteins processed - virus particles are assembled;
  4. Particles assemble inside the host, then burst or bud to exterior, destroying the cell - free particles in the tissue or Environment, ready to infect new cells
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95
Q

Which stage in how viruses work are Scientists still pretty uncertain about?

A

Part 3, where the virus mRNAs are translated and proteins processed (virus particles are assembled)

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96
Q

What type of process is viral replication?

A

Genetic

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97
Q

Functions of the nucleus

A

-Contains DNA (made in the ribosomes) which codes for/controls protein synthesis
-DNA replication occurs here
-Transcription produces mRNA templates

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98
Q

Size of the nucleus

A

4 micro metres

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99
Q

Draw and label a nucleus

A

(Check notes)

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100
Q

What is there linking the nuclear envelope and the rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Tubular continuity

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101
Q

What makes up the nuclear envelope of a nucleus?

A

Inner and outer nuclear membrane

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102
Q

Function of nuclear pores

A

Allow the transport of mRNA and ribosomes out of the nucleus

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103
Q

Function of nuclear envelopes/double membranes

A

Separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm

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104
Q

What’s another phrase for the nuclear envelope?

A

The double membrane

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105
Q

Chromatin function

A

Condenses before cell division to form chromosomes

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106
Q

How does chromatin work?

A

Wraps around histone protein molecules in the DNA as a way of organising the DNA in the nucleus. It can unwind to form proteins.

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107
Q

What type of protein does chromatin wrap itself around to organise the DNA in the nucleus?

A

Histone protein

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108
Q

Nucleolus function

A

Produces rRNA, tRNA and ribosomes

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109
Q

What is produced by the nucleolus?

A

-rRNA
-tRNA
-ribosomes

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110
Q

How do we recognise the nucleolus under the microscope?

A

Large dark patch

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111
Q

How does the rough endoplasmic reticulum get its name?

A

When seen under the electron microscope, the ribosomes on the surface can be seen

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112
Q

What IS the rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

A system of parallel double membranes

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113
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum function

A

-Packaging and storing proteins (modifying them)
-Producing transport vesicles which merge to form the Golgi body

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114
Q

Draw and label the rough endoplasmic reticulum structure

A

(Check notes)

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115
Q

What do you call the gaps between the parallel rough endoplasmic reticulum membranes and what is their function?

A

Cisternae, which put the protein into 3D form

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116
Q

What do the cisternae do?

A

Put the protein into 3D form

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117
Q

What happens after a ribosome has made a protein?

A

It’s fed into the cisternae and fed throughout the cell

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118
Q

What makes the primary protein structure?

A

Ribosomes

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119
Q

How is a protein fed throughout a cell?

A

-Membranes arranged into sheets with cisternae in between
-Ribosomes make proteins
-Protein is fed into the cisternae
-Cisternae feeds the protein throughout the cell

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120
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum function

A

Produce, package and transport steroids and lipids

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121
Q

What does the smooth endoplasmic reticulum NOT produce, package and transport?

A

Proteins

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122
Q

What does the smooth endoplasmic reticulum not have?

A

Ribosomes

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123
Q

What structures are present on the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

-Membrane
-Cisternae (gaps)

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124
Q

What’s an accurate description of the Golgi body?

A

Very dynamic - lots happening

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125
Q

Functions of the Golgi body

A

-Packaging proteins for secretion from the cell
-Modification of proteins (e.g - adding carbohydrate chains to form glycoproteins)
-Producing lysosomes and digestive enzymes (tertiary structure)

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126
Q

Secretion

A

Where substances are discharged from the cell, in the example of the Golgi body, it’s proteins

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127
Q

What travels with the protein which it’s transporting to the Golgi body?

A

Vesicle

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128
Q

3 levels within the Golgi body that allows secretion to take place

A

-Cis cisterna
-Medial Golgi
-Trans cisterna

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129
Q

What does a vesicle do?

A

Travels and merges with the Golgi body with the protein that its transporting

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130
Q

What do vesicles fuse with?

A

The plasma membrane

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131
Q

What happens at the trans cisterna of the Golgi body?

A

-Proteins are modified - processed and packaged into vesicles, and parts bud off to form capsules that break off
-This ensures that proteins are delivered to the correct place

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132
Q

What do we mean when we say that proteins are ‘modified’ by the trans cisterna?

A

Processed and packaged into vesicles before breaking off as capsules

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133
Q

What are proteins synthesised by and where?

A

Ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum

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134
Q

How does the rough endoplasmic reticulum form vesicles?

A

Made of membrane, which can pinch off of the reticulum to form a vesicle

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135
Q

What forms a vesicle for secretion?

A

The rough endoplasmic reticulum

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136
Q

What do vesicles move towards by the Golgi body and why?

A

The cell membrane to release content

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137
Q

Which type of vesicles do not undergo secretion and why?

A

Some stay within the cytoplasm of the cell as they have specific functions here

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138
Q

Where do vesicles that do not undergo secretion stay?

A

In the cytoplasm of the cell

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139
Q

Ribosomes function

A

-Protein synthesis
-Primary protein structure is formed here

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140
Q

What type of protein structure is formed by ribosomes?

A

Primary protein structure

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141
Q

What do ribosomes consist of?

A

A small and a large subunit

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142
Q

How big are ribosomes?

A

About 10nm - incredibly small, more like big molecules

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143
Q

What can ribosomes be compared to and why?

A

Big molecules, as they’re so small (d= 10nm)

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144
Q

How does the ribosome know what protein to make?

A

-Instructions to make proteins are fed through, written on am mRNA molecule in the nucleus.
-Tells the ribosome, like a code, what type of protein to make

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145
Q

What are the instructions for protein synthesis written on for ribosomes?

A

mRNA molecules in the nucleus

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146
Q

What are mRNA molecules in the nucleus responsible for?

A

Being fed through the ribosomes, giving instructions of what type of proteins to make

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147
Q

Mitochondria function

A

ATP synthesis by aerobic respiration

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148
Q

What is the mitochondria vital for?

A

All cells that respire aerobically

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149
Q

What do cells respire anaerobically through?

A

The cytoplasm

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150
Q

What do cells respire aerobically through?

A

The mitochondria

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151
Q

Draw and label a mitochondria

A

(Check notes)

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152
Q

Where do lots of respiration reactions happen within the mitochondria?

A

In the matrix

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153
Q

Where is the site of ATP synthesis in the mitochondria?

A

Storked particles

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154
Q

What are storked particles in the mitochondria?

A

-Site of ATP synthesis
-Complex particles, imbedded in inner membrane

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155
Q

Where are storked particles to be found in the mitochondria?

A

Imbedded in the inner membrane

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156
Q

What are we seeing when we see the mitochondria through a microscope?

A

A thin slice through the organelle

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157
Q

What does the endsymbiont hypothesis state?

A

That mitochondria (and chloroplasts) may have been free-living, unicellular organisms millions of years ago

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158
Q

What’s the name of the hypothesis that states that mitochondria may have been free-living, unicellular organisms millions of years ago?

A

Endosymbiont hypothesis

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159
Q

What’s the proof for the endosymbiont hypothesis in the mitochondria?

A

-Circular DNA (similar to prokaryotic cells)
-Smaller ribosomes than the rough endoplasmic reticulum + cytoplasm (similar to prokaryotic cells)
-Fairly large (0.8 micro metres diameter)

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160
Q

How big are the mitochondria?

A

A diameter of around 0.8 micro metres

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161
Q

What type of cells does the mitochondria (and chloroplasts!) share similar factors with and what are they? What did this lead to (which is?)?

A

-Prokaryotic cells
-Circular DNA
-Smaller ribosomes than the rough endoplasmic reticulum + cytoplasm

=endosymbiont hypothesis
(The hypothesis that the mitochondria may have been free-living unicellular organisms millions of years ago)

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162
Q

What type of ribosomes does the mitochondria have?

A

Small, 70s ribosomes

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163
Q

What shape does the mitochondria have and why is this effective?

A

Cylindrical
-Larger surface area to volume ratio than a sphere
-Reduces diffusion distance between the edge and the centre
-Efficient aerobic respiration

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164
Q

What does the fact that the mitochondria is cylindrical mean for it?

A

Bigger surface area to volume ratio
-Reduces diffusion distance between the edge and centre for efficient aerobic respiration

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165
Q

What decreases and increases due to the mitochondria bing cylindrical in shape?

A

Decreases - Diffusion distance between the edge and the centre
Increases - Efficiency of aerobic respiration

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166
Q

What’s the distance between the edge and the centre of the mitochondria known as?

A

The diffusion distance

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167
Q

What deceases a mitochondria’s diffusion distance?

A

Being cylindrical in shape

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168
Q

What are eukaryotic cells usually doing if they divide?

A

Growing and replacing old cells

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169
Q

What are prokaryotic cells doing if they divide?

A

Creating entire new cells

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170
Q

Why is it important for plant cells to have their cellulose cell walls?

A

To maintain turgor pressure to avoid bursting

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171
Q

What do the lysosomes contain?

A

Powerful digestive enzymes to break down worn out organelles or cells

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172
Q

What happens to cells at the end of their lifespans?

A

Programmed cell death

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173
Q

How does programmed cell death work?

A

Cell produces many lysosomes, which burst open, release their enzymes and digest the whole cell

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174
Q

What actually ARE lysosomes?

A

Vesicles

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175
Q

What’s a vesicle?

A

Capsules formed from a membrane that contain something

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176
Q

What do the lysosome vesicles contain?

A

Digestive enzymes

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177
Q

What type of programmed cell death occurs with mutations?

A

Spontaneous

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178
Q

If programmed cell death happens spontaneously, what form does it take?

A

Mutations

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179
Q

2 examples of programmed cell death happening spontaneously in the form of mutations

A

-Metamorphosis- tails of tadpoles are broken down
-Embryos fingers are released when a membrane is broken down

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180
Q

What do the digestive enzymes in lysosomes do?

A

Break down worn out organelles or cells

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181
Q

What can be done with worn out organelles?

A

Digested by the powerful digestive enzymes of lysosomes and can be re-used

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182
Q

Where do vesicles form and how does this form a lysosome?

A

Vesicles form from the Golgi body and bud off to form a lysosome

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183
Q

How do phagocytes use lysosomes?

A

To digest engulfed bacteria

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184
Q

What do phagocytes use to digest engulfed bacteria?

A

Lysosomes

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185
Q

What do centrioles do?

A

Form the spindle during cell division

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186
Q

What does the spindle of a centriole do?

A

Connect chromosomes and pull them apart

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187
Q

What connects to chromosomes and pulls them apart in centrioles?

A

Spindle

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188
Q

What are centrioles not present in?

A

Higher plant cells

189
Q

What isn’t present in higher plant cells?

A

Centrioles

190
Q

Centrioles shape

A

Cylindrical

191
Q

What are centrioles formed from?

A

Microtubules

192
Q

How many microtubules are centrioles formed from?

A

9 groups of 3

193
Q

Examples of cell division

A

Mitosis and meiosis

194
Q

What does the vacuole do?

A

-Contains cell sap and stores solutes such as glucose
-Swells due to osmosis for turgidity

195
Q

What does the vacuole contain?

A

Sell sap

196
Q

Give an example of a solute that the vacuole stores

A

Glucose

197
Q

Sell sap

A

Solution containing sugars and amino acids

198
Q

What happens to the vacuole if it has a low concentration of water?

A

Water moves in due to osmosis

199
Q

When is a cell turgid?

A

When it swells with water and is as full as it can be

200
Q

What is a cell when it’s as full as it can be with water?

A

Turgid

201
Q

What’s the name of the membrane around the vacuole?

A

Tonoplast

202
Q

Tonoplast

A

Membrane around the vacuole

203
Q

What does the vacuole do to other organelles within the cell and why?

A

Pushes the cytoplasm and organelles towards the edges of the cell due to it filling the cell.

204
Q

What do chloroplasts do?

A

Contain photosynthetic pigments which trap light energy for photosynthesis

205
Q

What do chloroplasts contain?

A

Photosynthetic pigments

206
Q

What do chloroplasts take in? Describe these

A

H20 and C02 - simple, inorganic compounds

207
Q

What type of compounds are H20 and C02 (which are taken in by the chloroplasts)?

A

Simple and inorganic

208
Q

What’s the product of photosynthesis in chloroplasts?

A

Carbohydrates like glucose

209
Q

Stroma

A

Fluid that includes enzymes for catalysing photosynthesis reactions in chloroplasts

210
Q

Which part of a cell are the grana on and what are they?

A

In chloroplasts, formed from little sacks of membrane known as Thylocoids

211
Q

What are the little sacks of membrane that form the grana on chloroplasts known as?

A

Thylocoids

212
Q

What are the starch grains on chloroplasts?

A

Carbohydrates produced through photosynthesis by the plant

213
Q

What surrounds the chloroplast?

A

Chloroplast envelope (double membrane)

214
Q

Draw and label a chloroplast

A

(Check notes)

215
Q

What can chlorophyll be seen under?

A

An electron microscope

216
Q

What do chloroplasts have that make them similar to prokaryotic cells?

A

-Circular DNA
-Ribosomes similar to the mitochondria

217
Q

Which part of the cell also falls under the endosymbiont hypothesis and why?

A

Chloroplasts, as they have ribosomes like the mitochondria and a circular DNA

218
Q

What type of cells is the plasmodesmata seen in?

A

Plant cells

219
Q

What does the plasmodesmata do?

A

-Connects cells via cytoplasm filled canals, which pass through cell walls
-Allow transport of materials between cells via the symplastic pathway

220
Q

What type of materials does the plasmodesmata allow transport of between cells?

A

Sugar and other substances

221
Q

What type of pathway allows transport of materials between cells in the plasmodesmata?

A

Symplastic pathway

222
Q

Draw and label the plasmodesmata

A

(Check notes)

223
Q

Draw and label a cell wall

A

(Check notes)

224
Q

What does the cell wall do?

A

-Gives mechanical strength due to the high tensile strength of cellulose microfibrils
-Transports solutes via the apoplastic pathway
-Cell to cell communication via the plasmodesmata

225
Q

What does the cell wall allow to move in and out through itself?

A

-Water
-Dissolved ions

226
Q

How does the transport of solutes happen in the cell wall?

A

Apoplastic pathway

227
Q

Apoplastic pathway

A

Allows the transport of solutes in the cell wall

228
Q

Symplastic pathway

A

Allows transport of materials between cells in the plasmodesmata

229
Q

Why does the cell wall have a high tensile strength?

A

Due to the cellulose microfibrils

230
Q

What do cellulose microfibrils give the cell wall?

A

A high tensile strength

231
Q

Via what does cell to cell communication happen?

A

The plasmodesmata

232
Q

What’s transported via the apoplastic pathway in the cell wall?

A

Solutes

233
Q

What can be re-used from the lysosome?

A

Worn out organelle molecules that have been digested by the lysosome

234
Q

What are cells organised to form in multicellular organisms?

A

Tissues
Organs

235
Q

Tissues

A

Groups of similar cells working together, organised to carry out 1+ function within the body

236
Q

3 examples of tissues in animals

A

Epithelium, Skeletal muscle, Cartilage

237
Q

3 examples of tissues in plants

A

Xylem, Phoelem, Parenchyma

238
Q

What are the Xylem, Phoelem and Parenchyma?

A

Tissues found in plants

239
Q

Organs

A

Distinct parts of an organism that are specialised to perform 1+ function

240
Q

4 examples of organs in animals

A

Eyes, Kidneys, Lungs, Heart

241
Q

4 examples of organs in plants

A

Roots, stem, leaf, flower

242
Q

What do organs usually contain in terms of tissues?

A

Several different tissues

243
Q

Which tissues does the heart contain?

A

Cardiac muscle, nervous tissue, connective tissue

244
Q

Organ systems

A

Involve a number of different organs working together to perform a common function

245
Q

Example of an organ system

A

The digestive system -
Includes the stomach, intestines, liver and pancreas

246
Q

How do cells form a tissue?

A

Cells adjacent each other in the embryo often differentiate in the same way to form a tissue

247
Q

What are the three types of tissue we must learn, and what are they in?

A

-Epithelial tissue
-Muscle tissue
-Connective tissue

(In Mammals)

248
Q

Epithelial tissue

A

Forms a continuous layer, covering or lining the internal or external surfaces of the body

249
Q

Does the epithelial tissue include blood vessels?

A

Nope

250
Q

Does the epithelial tissue have nerve endings?

A

Possibly

251
Q

In what type of tissue do cells sit on something (what?) and what is this made of?

A

In the Epithelial tissue, cells sit on a basement membrane, made of collagen and protein

252
Q

What is the basement membrane in epithelial tissue made up of?

A

Collagen and protein

253
Q

What does the basement membrane, made of collagen and protein, vary in?

A

Shape and complexity

254
Q

What type of functions (2) do epithelial tissues normally have?

A

Protective or secretary

255
Q

What are the three types of epithelial tissue?

A

Cuboidal
Ciliated
Squamous

256
Q

What does the cuboidal epithelium do?

A

Lines kidney tubules and the small intestine

257
Q

What are the small intestine and kidney tubules lined by?

A

Cuboidal Epithelial tissue

258
Q

How do we recognise simple and stratified cuboidal images?

A

One layer of cells - simple
2 layers of cells - stratified

259
Q

What shape cells make up the cuboidal epithilum?

A

Cuboidal

260
Q

What is cube shaped within the cuboidal epithilum?

A

Cells

261
Q

What does the ciliated epithilium do?

A

-Composed of cells which transport substances like mucus in the bronchi and ova in the Fallopian tubes
-Cilia move and sweep substances along

262
Q

What does cilia do?

A

Move and sweep substances along

263
Q

Two examples of substances transported by the ciliated epithilium

A

Mucus in the bronchi
Ova in the Fallopian tubes

264
Q

Cells which make up which type of tissue are substances like mucus in the bronchi and ova in the Fallopian tubes transported by?

A

The ciliated epithilium

265
Q

What shaped cells are in the ciliated epithilum?

A

Columnar

266
Q

What is columnar shaped in the ciliated epithilium?

A

The cells

267
Q

Which type of tissue has columnar shaped cells?

A

Ciliated epithilum

268
Q

Which type of tissue has cube shaped cells?

A

Cuboidal epithilum

269
Q

What are the three different types of ciliated epithilum and how do we differentiate between them in diagrams?

A

-Simple columnar: Simple columns (microvilli on top)
-Stratified columnar: columns more split off
-Pseudostratified ciliated columnar: More wavey sort of columns

270
Q

What do you call the little hairs on the top of the pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithilum?

A

Microvilli

271
Q

What is the squamous epithilum?

A

Consists of flattened cells on a basement membrane

272
Q

What does the squamous epithilum form?

A

-The walls of the alveoli
-Line Bowman’s capsule in the kidney nephron

273
Q

What do all three of the types of epithilal tissue we’re looking at (cuboidal, ciliated and squamous) include?

A

A basement membrane

274
Q

Does the squamous epithilum include a basement membrane?

A

Yes - all three epithelial tissue types do

275
Q

What type of tissue forms the walls of the alveoli and line Bowman’s capsule in the kidney nephron?

A

Squamous epithilum

276
Q

What are the types of squamous epithilum and how do we recognise them in diagrams?

A

-Simple squamous: one layer of cells
-Stratified squamous: multiple layers of cells

277
Q

What are the three main types of muscle tissue and what do they all have?

A

Skeletal
Smooth
Cardiac
(Different structures and functions)

278
Q

What do skeletal muscle tissues do?

A

Are attached to bones - move the skeleton

279
Q

What is the skeletal muscle tissue made up of?

A

Bands of long cells - fibres

280
Q

3 features of the fibres within skeletal muscle tissue

A

Can contract powerfully
Tire easily
Can choose whether or not to contract them - voluntary muscles

281
Q

What type of muscle can we contract powerfully (yet they tire easily), and can we choose whether or not to contract them (voluntary muscles) and why?

A

Skeletal (has bands of long cells known as fibres)

282
Q

What are skeletal muscles as a result of the fact that they have bands of long cells that you can choose whether or not to contract?

A

Voluntary muscles

283
Q

Fibres

A

Bands of long cells in the skeletal muscle tissue

284
Q

What are the bands of long cells in the skeletal muscle tissue known as?

A

Fibres

285
Q

What can the skeletal muscle tissue also be referred to as and why?

A

Striped or striated muscle as it forms a striped pattern under the microscope

286
Q

What type of tissue is often described as striped or striated and why?

A

The skeletal muscle tissue, as it forms a striped pattern under the microscope

287
Q

Draw and label the skeletal muscle tissue

A

(Check notes)

288
Q

What are the thick and thin filaments within skeletal muscles tissue?

A

Actin - thin filament
Myosin - thick filament

289
Q

Actin

A

Thin filament in skeletal muscle tissue

290
Q

Myosin

A

Thick filament in skeletal muscle tissue

291
Q

What are actin and myosin?

A

Thin and thick filaments within the skeletal muscle tissue

292
Q

What does the smooth muscle tissue consist of?

A

Individual spindle shaped cells that can contract rhythmically

293
Q

What shape are the cells within smooth muscle tissue?

A

Spindle shaped

294
Q

How do the cells contract within smooth muscle tissue?

A

Rhythmically, but less powerfully than skeletal muscle tissue

295
Q

Which cells contract most powerfully - Skeletal or Smooth muscle tissue cells?

A

Skeletal

296
Q

Where can smooth muscle tissue be found?

A

Skin
Walls of blood vessels
Digestive and respiratory tracts

297
Q

What type of tissue can be found in the skin, the walls of blood vessels and in the digestive and respiratory tracts?

A

Smooth muscle tissue

298
Q

Can you control smooth muscles? What does this mean?

A

No, they’re involuntary muscles

299
Q

Are the skeletal and smooth muscle tissues voluntary or not? What does this mean?

A

Skeletal - Voluntary (can choose whether to contract them)
Smooth - Involuntary (cannot choose whether to contract them)

300
Q

What is another name given to the smooth muscle tissue and why?

A

Unscripted or unstriated muscle as it does not display a striped pattern under the microscope

301
Q

Which tissue is often described as unstriped or unstriated and why?

A

Smooth muscle tissue as it doesn’t form a striped pattern under the microscope

302
Q

Draw and label a smooth muscle tissue

A

(Check notes)

303
Q

What shaped nuclei does the smooth muscle tissue have?

A

Cigar shaped

304
Q

Where is the cardiac muscle tissue found?

A

Only in the heart

305
Q

What are the structures and properties of cardiac muscle tissue similar to?

A

In between skeletal and smooth muscle

306
Q

Structures/properties of the cardiac muscle tissue that are similar to skeletal muscle tissue

A

Have stripes

307
Q

What feature do both the skeletal and cardiac muscle tissues share?

A

Have stripes

308
Q

What structures/properties do the cardiac and smooth muscle tissues share?

A

Lack the long fibres of the skeletal muscle
Doesn’t tire
Contract rhythmically, without stimulation form nerves or hormones

309
Q

What does the smooth and cardiac muscle tissue not require from nerves or hormones?

A

Stimulation to contract rhythmically

310
Q

From what do the smooth and cardiac muscle tissues not require stimulation from?

A

Nerves and hormones

311
Q

What CAN nerves and hormones do within cardiac muscle tissue?

A

Modify their contractions, although they aren’t required to stimulate the rhythmic contraction in the first place

312
Q

What does the connective tissue do?

A

Connect OR support OR separate tissues and organs

313
Q

What does the connective tissue contain?

A

Elastic and collagen fibres in an extracellular fluid or matrix

314
Q

What are the elastic and collagen fibres within the connective tissue found in?

A

Extracellular fluid or matrix

315
Q

Extracellular fluid or matrix

A

Contains the elastic and collagen fibres in the connective tissue

316
Q

What is between the fibres within the connective tissue?

A

Fat storing cells (adipocytes) and cells of the immune system

317
Q

Where are the adipocytes (fat storing cells) and cells of the immune system within the connective tissue?

A

Between fibres

318
Q

Adipocytes

A

Fat storing cells found between fibres in the connective tissue

319
Q

Fat storing cells found between fibres in the connective tissue

A

Adipocytes

320
Q

Function of the connective tissue

A

Support
Packing
Defence
Repair

321
Q

7 examples of connective tissue

A

Areolar tissue
Collagen
Ligaments
Adipose tissue
Blood
Lymph
Cartilage

322
Q

Where are the epithelium, skeletal muscle and cartilage tissues found?

A

In animals

323
Q

Areolar tissue:
What type of tissue is it?
Where is it found?
What is its function?

A

Connective tissue
Under the skin
Connects organs and tissues together

324
Q

Collagen function and type of tissue

A

Forms tendons which connect muscles to bones, connective tissue

325
Q

Tendons

A

Formed by the collagen connective tissue, connect muscles to bones

326
Q

Ligaments function and type of tissue

A

Connect bones and elastic tissues, connective tissue

327
Q

Adipose tissue
What is it composed of?
What type of tissue is it?
Where is it found?
Function?

A

Fatty cells
Connective tissue
Just under the skin and around organs
Energy store, protects delicate organs an thermal insulator

328
Q

Types of tissues found in the stomach

A

Smooth muscle tissue
Loose connective tissue
Nervous tissue
Blood
Columnar epithilum

329
Q

Compare the presence of the plasma membrane across bacteria, animal and plant cells

A

All include it

330
Q

Compare the presence of the nuclear membrane across bacteria, animal and plant cells

A

In plant and animal cells, not bacteria

331
Q

Compare the presence of membrane bound organelles (e.g - mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum) across bacteria, animal and plant cells

A

In animal and plant cells, not bacteria cells

332
Q

Compare the presence of ribosomes across bacteria, animal and plant cells

A

Bacteria - small, 70s free in the cytoplasm
Animal and plant - large, 80s free in cytoplasm and attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum

333
Q

Compare the presence of vacuoles across bacteria, animal and plant cells

A

Bacteria - smaller than eukaryotic cell vacuoles (smaller cell)
Animal - small and temporary
Plant - Large, permanent vacuole surrounded by a Tonoplast membrane

334
Q

Examples of membrane bound organelles

A

Mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum

335
Q

What is the Bacteria cell’s large permanent vacuole surrounded by?

A

A Tonoplast membrane

336
Q

Compare the presence of chloroplasts across bacteria, animal and plant cells

A

Only in plant cells

337
Q

Compare the presence of the mesosome across bacteria, animal and plant cells

A

Only in bacteria cells

338
Q

Compare the presence of centrioles across bacteria, animal and plant cells

A

Only in animal cells

339
Q

Compare the presence of DNA across bacteria, animal and plant cells

A

Bacteria - circular, not associated with histone proteins, loose in the cytoplasm
Plant and animal - linear, associated with histone proteins to form chromosomes, found in the nucleus

340
Q

Compare the presence of the cell wall across bacteria, animal and plant cells

A

Bacteria - made of peptidoglycan
Animal - X
Plant - made of cellulose

341
Q

What do virus particles not do that causes us not to refer to them as cells?

A

-Grow
-Respire
-Reproduce (invade host cells and use their metabolic processes to produce more virus particles)

342
Q

What do virus particles not have that causes us not to refer to them as cells?

A

-Cell membrane
-Cytoplasm

343
Q

What’s the nucleolus made from?

A

Condensed chromatin

344
Q

What does the rough endoplasmic reticulum transport to the Golgi body?

A

Polypeptides

345
Q

What type of vesicles will eventually release their contents to the outside of the cell?

A

Secretory vesicles

346
Q

Secretory vesicles

A

Vesicles that will eventually release their contents to the outside of the cell

347
Q

What are the outer membranes of two adjacent cells?

A

Plasma membranes

348
Q

What could be responsible for the different appearances in mitochondrion?

A

-Could have been cut in different places
-Self-replication: different sizes and ages

349
Q

What are two ways the mitochondria has adapted to perform its function?

A

Cylindrical shape - larger surface area to volume ratio than a sphere - reduces diffusion distance between the edge and the centre for efficient aerobic respiration
Folded membranes (Cristae)

350
Q

What are processed in the Golgi bodies?

A

Proteins and lysosomes

351
Q

Name a tissue which contains large numbers of mitochondria

A

Skeletal muscle tissue

352
Q

Name the two molecules found in chromosomes

A

DNA and histone proteins

353
Q

Name two forms of chromatin

A

Heterochromatin
Euchromatin

354
Q

What are heterochromotin and euchromatin?

A

Forms of chromatin

355
Q

Which form of chromatin contains DNA with active genes?

A

Euchromatin

356
Q

What is the outer membrane of two adjacent cells?

A

Plasma membrane

357
Q

Plasma membrane

A

Phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded in it and carbohydrates embedded in the surface

358
Q

What’s embedded in the plasma membrane and what’s on the extracellular surface?

A

Embedded - proteins
Extracellular surface - carbohydrates

359
Q

What type of surface does the plasma membrane have?

A

Extracellular

360
Q

Plasma membrane function

A

-Selectively permeable barrier between internal and external environment of the cell
-(Only in Eukaryotes) - cell recognition

361
Q

What function does the plasma membrane have that’s only in Eukaryotic cells?

A

Cell recognition

362
Q

In what type of cells only does the plasma membrane have the function of cell recognition?

A

Eukaryotes

363
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Mainly fluid (the cytosol), which contains dissolved substances and enzymes
The site of many cell reactions (e.g - anaerobic respiration)

364
Q

What is cytoplasm mainly?

A

Cytosol

365
Q

What is both a nucleotide and a plasmid?

A

Circular DNA free in the cytoplasm

366
Q

Nucleoid function

A

Carries bacterial genetic code

367
Q

Plasmids function

A

Carry additional genes (e.g - antibiotic resistance genes) and can be passed from 1 bacterium to another

368
Q

Example of an additional genes that plasmids can carry

A

Antibiotic resistance genes

369
Q

Pectidoglycan cell wall

A

Rigid layer composed of sugars with amino acid side chains
Beta bonding forms cross links between molecules of pectidoglycan - microfibrils
Peptide bonds create stronger links than hydrogen bonding in cellulose

370
Q

What is the pectidoglycan cell wall composed of?

A

Sugars with amino acid side chains

371
Q

Type of bonding in the pectidoglycan cell wall

A

Beta

372
Q

Which is strongest - pectidoglycan or cellulose cell walls? How so?

A

Pectidoglycan - peptide bonds create stronger links than hydrogen bonding in cellulose

373
Q

Pectidoglycan cell wall function

A

-Determines the shape of the bacterial cell
-Protection form toxic compounds and osmotic effects

374
Q

Nucleus:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Eukaryotic cells only

375
Q

Nucleolus:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Eukaryotic cells only

376
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Eukaryotic cells only

377
Q

Plasma membrane:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

378
Q

Cytoplasm
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

379
Q

Nucleoid and plasmids:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Prokaryotic cells only

380
Q

Pectidoglycan cell wall:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Prokaryotic cells only

381
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Eukaryotic cells only

382
Q

Golgi body:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Eukaryotic cells only

383
Q

Ribosomes:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells

384
Q

Mitochondria:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Eukaryotic cells only

385
Q

Centrioles:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Animal cells only

386
Q

Vacuole:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Plant cells only
(small and temporary in animal cells)

387
Q

Chloroplasts:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Plant cells only

388
Q

Plasmodesmata:
Is it present in Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, both, specifically plant only or specifically animal only cells?

A

Plant cells only

389
Q

List 5 organ systems

A

The digestive system
The nervous system
The endocrine system
The cardiac system
The immune system

390
Q

Give an example of an epithilium tissue

A

the skin

391
Q

What is cilia?

A

Protein forms from microtubules

392
Q

What does mucus in the bronchi do?

A

Catches dust particles and moles towards the mouth so as not to reach the alveoli and cause infection

393
Q

What does the ova in the Fallopian tubes do?

A
  • Moves the eggs towards the womb
    -After fertilisation, the early embryo is carried towards the uterus by the cilia
394
Q

Describe the squamous layer and give a reason for why it’s like this

A

A very thin layer in order to have a short distance for oxygen to diffuse in exchanges

395
Q

What type of epithelium is skin?

A

Stratified squamous epithilium

396
Q

What type of epilithial tissue forms the capillaries?

A

Simple squamous

397
Q

Describe the skin on the outer surface of the skin and what happens because of this

A

Dead, so its replaced by ew cells from the age of the epithilum

398
Q

What’s the name for muscle cells?

A

Myocytes

399
Q

Myocytes

A

Muscle cells

400
Q

How many nuclei are there per cell of the smooth muscle tissue?

A

1

401
Q

What type of muscle tissue makes up the walls of the oesophagus?

A

Smooth muscle tissue

402
Q

How does food reach our stomach? What’s the name of the process?

A

-Walls of the oesophagus are made up of smooth muscle tissue (involuntary muscles!)
-A wave of attraction known as peristalsis from the smooth muscles, pushing food towards the stomach

403
Q

What type of tissue makes up blood vessels and how do they work?

A

Smooth muscle
Relax to increase diameter to control the movement of blood

404
Q

What could the cardiac muscle cells do outside the body and what do we call this?

A

Could contract by themselves in the right conditions outside of the body due to their internal impulse to contract, making them myogenic

405
Q

Myogenic

A

Cardiac muscle cells’ internal impulse to contract, even if outside of the body

406
Q

Why does the skeletal muscle tissue contain multiple mitochondria?

A

For ATP synthesis

407
Q

What are myocytes made out of?

A

Myofibrils

408
Q

Myofibrils

A

Make up myocytes

409
Q

What are actin and myosin?

A

Protein filaments in the skeletal muscle tissue

410
Q

Protein filaments in the skeletal muscle tissue + descriptions

A

Actin (thin), Myosin (thick)

411
Q

What actually causes a muscle to contract?

A

Protein filaments are interwoven together - can slide over each other for the muscle to contract

412
Q

Describe the nuclei in the cells of skeletal muscle

A

Multi-nucleated: More than one nucleus per cell

413
Q

Multi-nucleated
Definition and example

A

More than one nucleus per cell
Cells of the skeletal muscle tissue

414
Q

Where are the 5 different tissues in the stomach found?

A

Smooth muscle, loose connective, nervous and blood - Walls
Columnar epithelium - Inner lining

415
Q

What are the 6 functions of the cell surface membrane/the plasma membrane?

A

-The boundary that separates the living cell from its non-living surroundings
-Controls which substances pass into and out from the cell
-Cell recognition
-Controls the uptake of nutrients
-Allows waste products to pass out of the cell
-Is responsible for secreting substances such as enzymes and glycoproteins

416
Q

What type of substances is the plasma membrane responsible for secreting?

A

Enzymes and glycoproteins, for example

417
Q

Another word for the plasma membrane

A

Cell surface membrane

418
Q

What is the plasma membrane made up almost entirely from?

A

Phospholipids and proteins

419
Q

What can the phospholipids within the plasma membrane do?

A

Form bilayers, with one sheet of phospholipid forming over another

420
Q

What forms the basis of membrane structure?

A

The phospholipid bilayer

421
Q

What does the phospholipid bilayer form?

A

The basis of membrane structure

422
Q

What does the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane allow to enter and leave the cell?

A

Lipid soluble (non-polar) molecules

423
Q

What can lipid soluble (non-polar) molecules do within the cell? Why?

A

Enter and leave the cell due to the phospholipid bilayer

424
Q

What does the phospholipid bilayer prevent from entering and leaving the cell?

A

Water soluble (polar) molecules

425
Q

What can water soluble (polar) molecules do to a cell? Why?

A

They cannot enter and leave the cell due to the phospholipid bilayer

426
Q

What type of molecules are lipid soluble?

A

Non-polar

427
Q

What type of molecules are water soluble?

A

Polar

428
Q

What’s a test we could do to see the phospholipid bilayer working within the cell membrane?

A

-Add a water soluble stain
-Hydrophillic part would accept the stain
-Each side of a hydrophobic layer would reject the stain

429
Q

What is between the cell membranes between cells?

A

Intercellular space

430
Q

Intercellular space

A

Between cell membranes between cells

431
Q

What’s the usual diameter of a cell membrane?

A

7-8nm

432
Q

Name two differences between the Golgi Body and the rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

Golgi body
-Packaging + assembling glycoproteins
R.E.R
-Storing + protein synthesis (has ribosomes)

433
Q

What’s similar between the Golgi body and the rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Both involved in transport

434
Q

Compare the presence of plasmids across prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

A

Eukaryotic - no plasmids
Prokaryotic - may contain plasmids

435
Q

What are the subunits on a ribosome?

A

Small 30s, and large 50s

436
Q

What attachment sites does a ribosome have?

A

mRNA
2 tRNA

437
Q

Draw and label a ribosome

A

(check notes)

438
Q

Cristae

A

Folded membranes

439
Q

Folded membranes

A

Cristae

440
Q

Draw and label the golgi body

A

(check notes)

441
Q

Cristae

A

Folded membranes of the mitochondrion

442
Q

Cisternae

A

Flattened membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body

443
Q

Describe the membrane of Cristae

A

Folded

444
Q

Describe the membranes of cisternae

A

Flattened

445
Q

What do Cristae appear in?

A

The mitochondria

446
Q

What do cisternae appear in?

A

The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body

447
Q

What is the difference between Cristae and cisternae?

A

Cristae - folded membranes of the mitochondrion
Cisternae - flattened membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body

448
Q

What do we always say for the structures in the trachea?

A

Cilia, not microvilli (no microvilli in the trachea)

449
Q

What doesn’t have microvilli?

A

The trachea

450
Q

Which other parts of the cell apart from the nucleus contain DNA?

A

mitochondria and chloroplasts

451
Q

Nucleus vs nucleolus

A

Nucleus - sub-organelle of the nucleus
Nucleolus - membrane bound organelle

452
Q

What’s the difference between simple and stratified epithelial tissue?

A

Simple - 1 single cell layer
Stratified - more than one layer

453
Q

What are he major biochemical elements present in ALL viruses?

A

Protein
Nuclei acid

454
Q

What are the biochemical components protein and nucleic acid present in ALL of?

A

Viruses

455
Q

What is ATP required for in terms of muscles?

A

Contractions

456
Q

What is required for muscle contraction?

A

ATP

457
Q

Difference between transverse and longitudinal sections

A

Longitudinal
-cells have been cut vertically down
-rectangular cells

Transverse
-cells are rounder

458
Q

Draw, label and describe all of the organelles involved in the synthesis of proteins

A

(Check notes)

459
Q

Endosymbiont advantages to chloroplasts and mitochondria

A

Evolutionary advantage
Compartmentalisation
Protection of mitochondria and chloroplasts
Raw materials supplied to organelles
Internalised energy source and nutrient supply

460
Q

Endosymbiosis

A

Entered via endocytosis in order to interact for the advantages of each other

461
Q

Do virus particles have chromosomes?

A

No

462
Q

Similarities between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

A

Both contain…
Ribosomes
Cell membranes
DNA
Genetic material

463
Q

Main difference between simple and stratified epithelial tissue

A

Simple = 1 layer of cells
Stratified = more cell layers

464
Q

What do mitochondria do during respiration?

A

Release heat

465
Q

How might the Cristae of mitochondria be part of the endosymbiont hypothesis?

A

May be involved in cellular respiration like the mesosome of prokaryotes

466
Q

How many tissue types in an organ?

A

Several

467
Q

How are secretory vesicles produces and how are digestive enzymes secreted from a cell?

A

Golgi body packages enzymes into vesicles
Vesicles move to cell surface membrane
Vesicles fuse with membrane
Exocytosis

468
Q

What type of cells have its DNA associated with histones? Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells?

A

Eukaryotic cells

469
Q

Why can’t virus particles synthesise proteins?

A

No ribosomes
No ATP

A level Biology (26 decks)

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