Unit 3 Part 2 Flashcards
Extinction
In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.)
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response
Generalization
(Also called stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)
Discrimination
In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)
Preparedness
A biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value
John Garcia
Discovered the Garcia effect which shows that organisms will avoid certain foods that they have eaten near the time they experience nausea or vomiting
Operant conditioning
A type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher
B.F. Skinner
“Father” of Behavior Analysis. Developed a theory of learning which says that a person is first exposed to a stimulus, which elicits a response, and the response is then reinforced (stimulus, response, reinforcement). Ultimately conditioning our behaviors
Developed the theory of operant conditioning, which posits that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments
Edward L. Thorndike
Proposed the law of effect, stating that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely to occur in the future, and those followed by unsatisfying consequences become less likely
Law of effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely
Operant chamber
In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Cognitive map
A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
Latent learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Insight learning
Solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Observational learning
Learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.)
Modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Albert Bandura
Developed his “Social Learning Theory” and the famous “Bobo Doll Experiment,” which demonstrated how children can learn aggressive behaviors by observing others acting aggressively
Prosocial behavior
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
Mirror neurons
Neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy
Antisocial behavior
Negative, destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior
Punishment
An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
Variable interval schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
Fixed interval schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Discriminative stimulus
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
Positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
Negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
Primary reinforcer
An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Conditioned reinforcer
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer
Reinforcement schedule
A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Partial (Intermittent) reinforcement schedule
Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
Fixed-ratio schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
Variable-ratio schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
Acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
Higher-order conditioning
A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)
Robert Rescorla
Contributed the Rescorla-Wagner model of associative learning. Discovered that the ability of a stimulus to predict a consequence significantly influences its effectiveness in shaping behavior
Instinctive drift
The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns
Ivan Pavlov
Trained dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by associating it with food
Visual cliff
A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
Zone of proximal development
In Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, the difference between a child’s actual level of ability and the level of ability that they can achieve when assisted by, or working in cooperation with, older or more experienced partners (e.g., adults or more knowledgeable peers). Vygotsky asserted that what children can do with the assistance of others is even more indicative of their developmental status than what they can do alone.
Crystallized intelligence
Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
Fluid intelligence
Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood
Neurocognitive disorders
A group of mental health conditions that affect a person’s ability to think, learn, and remember. They can be caused by a number of medical conditions, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and traumatic brain injury
Dementia
A generalized, pervasive deterioration of memory and at least one other cognitive function, such as language and an executive function, due to a variety of causes. The loss of intellectual abilities is severe enough to interfere with an individual’s daily functioning and social and occupational activity
Alzheimer’s Disease
A progressive neurodegenerative disease causing dementia and a significant decline in functioning
Behaviorism
The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)
John B. Watson
“Little Albert” experiment in which he trained a young boy to be afraid of a rat (or anything like looked like a white rat) because he made an unpleasant noise while presenting the rat
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)
Parallel play
Play that involves interacting with others for fun or sport
Pretend play
Pretend or make-believe play that includes an as-if orientation to actions, objects, and peers. It often involves playing a distinct role, such as mother, teacher, or doctor. Fantasy play also involves taking a stance that is different from reality and using a mental representation of a situation as part of an enactment.
Imaginary audience
The belief of an adolescent that others are constantly focusing attention on them, scrutinizing behaviors, appearance, and the like. The adolescent feels as though they are continually the central topic of interest to a group of spectators when in fact this is not the case
Personal fable
A belief in one’s uniqueness and invulnerability, which is an expression of adolescent egocentrism and may extend further into the lifespan
Basic trust versus mistrust
The first of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, between birth and 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant either comes to view other people and themself as trustworthy or comes to develop a fundamental distrust of their environment.
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
The second of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, between the ages of 1½ and 3 years. During this stage, children acquire a degree of self-reliance and self-confidence if allowed to develop at their own pace but may begin to doubt their ability to control themselves and their world if parents are overcritical, overprotective, or inconsistent.
Initiative versus guilt
The third of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which occurs during the child’s 3rd through 5th years. In planning, launching, and initiating fantasy, play, and other activity, the child learns to believe in their ability to successfully pursue goals. However, if these pursuits often fail or are criticized, the child may develop instead a feeling of self-doubt and guilt.
Industry versus inferiority
The fourth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, occurring from ages 6 to 11 years, during which the child learns to be productive and to accept evaluation of their efforts or becomes discouraged and feels inferior or incompetent.
Identity versus identity confusion
The fifth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, also known as identity versus role confusion, marked by an identity crisis that occurs during adolescence. During this stage, the individual may experience a psychosocial moratorium, a period of time that permits experimentation with social roles.
Intimacy versus isolation
The sixth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which extends from late adolescence through courtship and early family life to early middle age. During this period, individuals must learn to share and care without losing themselves; if they fail, they will feel alone and isolated.
Generativity versus stagnation
The seventh stage of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. Generativity is the positive goal of middle adulthood, interpreted in terms not only of procreation but also of creativity and fulfilling one’s full parental and social responsibilities toward the next generation, in contrast to a narrow interest in the self, or self-absorption
Integrity versus despair
The eighth and final stage of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which occurs during old age. In this stage, the individual reflects on the life they have lived and may develop either integrity—a sense of satisfaction in having lived a good life and the ability to approach death with equanimity—or despair—a feeling of bitterness about opportunities missed and time wasted, and a dread of approaching death
Adverse childhood experiences
Traumatic events or adverse conditions experienced in childhood that can have negative effects on mental and physical health in adulthood
Positive childhood experiences
Events, relationships, or environments that contribute to a child’s feeling of being nurtured, valued, and supported
Identity status model
An expansion of identity versus identity confusion, the fifth stage in Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. The model posits four possible identity statuses that an individual might assume, particularly during adolescence, each characterized by a different level of exploration of and commitment to a specific identity
Identity achievement status
Characterized by evidence of both identity exploration and commitment; this status is related to stable self-esteem and healthy psychological functioning
Diffusion status
Characterized by the lack of both identity exploration and commitment
Syntax
The set of rules that describes how words and phrases in a language are arranged into grammatical sentences, or the branch of linguistics that studies such rules
Semantics
The study of meaning in language, as opposed to the study of formal relationships (grammar) or sound systems (phonology)
Overextension
The tendency of very young children to extend the use of a word beyond the scope of its specific meaning, such as by referring to all animals as “doggie”
Underextension
The incorrect restriction of the use of a word, which is a mistake commonly made by young children acquiring language. For example, a child may believe that the label dog applies only to Fido, the family pet
Microsystem
In ecological systems theory, social environments inside the home
Mesosystem
In ecological systems theory, the groups and institutions outside the home that influence the child’s development and interact with aspects of the microsystem
Exosystem
In ecological systems theory, those societal structures that function largely independently of the individual but nevertheless affect the immediate context within which they develop. They include the government, the legal system, and the media
Macrosystem
In ecological systems theory, the level of environmental influence that is most distal to the developing individual and that affects all other systems. It includes the values, traditions, and sociocultural characteristics of the larger society
Chronosystem
In ecological systems theory, changes and continuities occurring over time that influence an individual’s development.
Separation anxiety
The normal apprehension experienced by a young child when away from the person or people to whom they are attached
Solitary play
Play where a child is near others but focused on their own activity
Foreclosure status
Premature commitment to an identity: the unquestioning acceptance by individuals (usually adolescents) of the role, values, and goals that others (e.g., parents, close friends, teachers, athletic coaches) have chosen for them
ASK MS. PALMER
Moratorium status
In Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, the experimental period of adolescence in which, during the task of discovering who one is as an individual separate from family of origin and as part of the broader social context, young people try out alternative roles before making permanent commitments to an identity
Conditioned emotional response
Any negative emotional response, typically fear or anxiety, that becomes associated with a neutral stimulus as a result of classical conditioning
Positive punishment
Punishment that results because some stimulus or circumstance is presented as a consequence of a response. For example, if a response results in presentation of a loud noise and the response becomes less likely as a result of this experience, then positive punishment has occurred.
Negative punishment
Punishment that results because some stimulus or circumstance is removed as a consequence of a response. For example, if a response results in a subtraction of money from an accumulating account, and the response becomes less likely as a result of this experience, then negative punishment has occurred
Chaining
An operant conditioning technique in which a complex behavioral sequence is learned. Animals, both human and nonhuman, can be taught to perform relatively elaborate sequences of activities by this method
Learned helplessness
The hopelessness and passive resignation humans and other animals learn when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
Martin Seligman
Developed the theory of learned helplessness which describes how individuals can learn to feel powerless in a situation even if they have the ability to change it
Vicarious conditioning
The acquisition of information, skills, or behavior through watching the performance of others, either directly or via such media as films and videos
Adolescent egocentrism
The feeling of personal uniqueness often experienced in adolescence; that is, the conviction that one is special and is or should be the constant focus of others’ attention
