Unit 3 Part 2

Question 1

Extinction

Answer 1

In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.)

Question 2

Spontaneous Recovery

Answer 2

The reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response

Question 3

Generalization

Answer 3

(Also called stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)

Question 4

Discrimination

Answer 4

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)

Question 5

Preparedness

Answer 5

A biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

Question 6

John Garcia

Answer 6

Discovered the Garcia effect which shows that organisms will avoid certain foods that they have eaten near the time they experience nausea or vomiting

Question 7

Operant conditioning

Answer 7

A type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

Question 8

B.F. Skinner

Answer 8

“Father” of Behavior Analysis. Developed a theory of learning which says that a person is first exposed to a stimulus, which elicits a response, and the response is then reinforced (stimulus, response, reinforcement). Ultimately conditioning our behaviors

Developed the theory of operant conditioning, which posits that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments

Question 9

Edward L. Thorndike

Answer 9

Proposed the law of effect, stating that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely to occur in the future, and those followed by unsatisfying consequences become less likely

Question 10

Law of effect

Answer 10

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely

Question 11

Operant chamber

Answer 11

In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

Question 12

Reinforcement

Answer 12

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Question 13

Shaping

Answer 13

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Question 14

Cognitive map

Answer 14

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Question 15

Latent learning

Answer 15

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Question 16

Insight learning

Answer 16

Solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Question 17

Observational learning

Answer 17

Learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.)

Question 18

Modeling

Answer 18

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Question 19

Albert Bandura

Answer 19

Developed his “Social Learning Theory” and the famous “Bobo Doll Experiment,” which demonstrated how children can learn aggressive behaviors by observing others acting aggressively

Question 20

Prosocial behavior

Answer 20

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Question 21

Mirror neurons

Answer 21

Neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

Question 22

Antisocial behavior

Answer 22

Negative, destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior

Question 23

Punishment

Answer 23

An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

Question 24

Variable interval schedule

Answer 24

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Question 25

Fixed interval schedule

Answer 25

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Question 26

Discriminative stimulus

Answer 26

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Question 27

Positive reinforcement

Answer 27

Increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

Question 28

Negative reinforcement

Answer 28

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Question 29

Primary reinforcer

Answer 29

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Question 30

Conditioned reinforcer

Answer 30

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

Question 31

Reinforcement schedule

Answer 31

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Question 32

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Answer 32

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Question 33

Partial (Intermittent) reinforcement schedule

Answer 33

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Question 34

Fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 34

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Question 35

Variable-ratio schedule

Answer 35

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Question 36

Acquisition

Answer 36

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Question 37

Higher-order conditioning

Answer 37

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Question 38

Robert Rescorla

Answer 38

Contributed the Rescorla-Wagner model of associative learning. Discovered that the ability of a stimulus to predict a consequence significantly influences its effectiveness in shaping behavior

Question 39

Instinctive drift

Answer 39

The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

Question 40

Ivan Pavlov

Answer 40

Trained dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by associating it with food

Question 41

Visual cliff

Answer 41

A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Question 42

Zone of proximal development

Answer 42

In Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, the difference between a child’s actual level of ability and the level of ability that they can achieve when assisted by, or working in cooperation with, older or more experienced partners (e.g., adults or more knowledgeable peers). Vygotsky asserted that what children can do with the assistance of others is even more indicative of their developmental status than what they can do alone.

Question 43

Crystallized intelligence

Answer 43

Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Question 44

Fluid intelligence

Answer 44

Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood

Question 45

Neurocognitive disorders

Answer 45

A group of mental health conditions that affect a person’s ability to think, learn, and remember. They can be caused by a number of medical conditions, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and traumatic brain injury

Question 46

Dementia

Answer 46

A generalized, pervasive deterioration of memory and at least one other cognitive function, such as language and an executive function, due to a variety of causes. The loss of intellectual abilities is severe enough to interfere with an individual’s daily functioning and social and occupational activity

Question 47

Alzheimer’s Disease

Answer 47

A progressive neurodegenerative disease causing dementia and a significant decline in functioning

Question 48

Behaviorism

Answer 48

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Question 49

John B. Watson

Answer 49

“Little Albert” experiment in which he trained a young boy to be afraid of a rat (or anything like looked like a white rat) because he made an unpleasant noise while presenting the rat

Question 50

Classical conditioning

Answer 50

A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

Question 51

Parallel play

Answer 51

Play that involves interacting with others for fun or sport

Question 52

Pretend play

Answer 52

Pretend or make-believe play that includes an as-if orientation to actions, objects, and peers. It often involves playing a distinct role, such as mother, teacher, or doctor. Fantasy play also involves taking a stance that is different from reality and using a mental representation of a situation as part of an enactment.

Question 53

Imaginary audience

Answer 53

The belief of an adolescent that others are constantly focusing attention on them, scrutinizing behaviors, appearance, and the like. The adolescent feels as though they are continually the central topic of interest to a group of spectators when in fact this is not the case

Question 54

Personal fable

Answer 54

A belief in one’s uniqueness and invulnerability, which is an expression of adolescent egocentrism and may extend further into the lifespan

Question 55

Basic trust versus mistrust

Answer 55

The first of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, between birth and 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant either comes to view other people and themself as trustworthy or comes to develop a fundamental distrust of their environment.

Question 56

Autonomy versus shame and doubt

Answer 56

The second of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, between the ages of 1½ and 3 years. During this stage, children acquire a degree of self-reliance and self-confidence if allowed to develop at their own pace but may begin to doubt their ability to control themselves and their world if parents are overcritical, overprotective, or inconsistent.

Question 57

Initiative versus guilt

Answer 57

The third of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which occurs during the child’s 3rd through 5th years. In planning, launching, and initiating fantasy, play, and other activity, the child learns to believe in their ability to successfully pursue goals. However, if these pursuits often fail or are criticized, the child may develop instead a feeling of self-doubt and guilt.

Question 58

Industry versus inferiority

Answer 58

The fourth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, occurring from ages 6 to 11 years, during which the child learns to be productive and to accept evaluation of their efforts or becomes discouraged and feels inferior or incompetent.

Question 59

Identity versus identity confusion

Answer 59

The fifth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, also known as identity versus role confusion, marked by an identity crisis that occurs during adolescence. During this stage, the individual may experience a psychosocial moratorium, a period of time that permits experimentation with social roles.

Question 60

Intimacy versus isolation

Answer 60

The sixth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which extends from late adolescence through courtship and early family life to early middle age. During this period, individuals must learn to share and care without losing themselves; if they fail, they will feel alone and isolated.

Question 61

Generativity versus stagnation

Answer 61

The seventh stage of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. Generativity is the positive goal of middle adulthood, interpreted in terms not only of procreation but also of creativity and fulfilling one’s full parental and social responsibilities toward the next generation, in contrast to a narrow interest in the self, or self-absorption

Question 62

Integrity versus despair

Answer 62

The eighth and final stage of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which occurs during old age. In this stage, the individual reflects on the life they have lived and may develop either integrity—a sense of satisfaction in having lived a good life and the ability to approach death with equanimity—or despair—a feeling of bitterness about opportunities missed and time wasted, and a dread of approaching death

Question 63

Adverse childhood experiences

Answer 63

Traumatic events or adverse conditions experienced in childhood that can have negative effects on mental and physical health in adulthood

Question 64

Positive childhood experiences

Answer 64

Events, relationships, or environments that contribute to a child’s feeling of being nurtured, valued, and supported

Question 65

Identity status model

Answer 65

An expansion of identity versus identity confusion, the fifth stage in Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. The model posits four possible identity statuses that an individual might assume, particularly during adolescence, each characterized by a different level of exploration of and commitment to a specific identity

Question 66

Identity achievement status

Answer 66

Characterized by evidence of both identity exploration and commitment; this status is related to stable self-esteem and healthy psychological functioning

Question 67

Diffusion status

Answer 67

Characterized by the lack of both identity exploration and commitment

Question 68

Syntax

Answer 68

The set of rules that describes how words and phrases in a language are arranged into grammatical sentences, or the branch of linguistics that studies such rules

Question 69

Semantics

Answer 69

The study of meaning in language, as opposed to the study of formal relationships (grammar) or sound systems (phonology)

Question 70

Overextension

Answer 70

The tendency of very young children to extend the use of a word beyond the scope of its specific meaning, such as by referring to all animals as “doggie”

Question 71

Underextension

Answer 71

The incorrect restriction of the use of a word, which is a mistake commonly made by young children acquiring language. For example, a child may believe that the label dog applies only to Fido, the family pet

Question 72

Microsystem

Answer 72

In ecological systems theory, social environments inside the home

Question 73

Mesosystem

Answer 73

In ecological systems theory, the groups and institutions outside the home that influence the child’s development and interact with aspects of the microsystem

Question 74

Exosystem

Answer 74

In ecological systems theory, those societal structures that function largely independently of the individual but nevertheless affect the immediate context within which they develop. They include the government, the legal system, and the media

Question 75

Macrosystem

Answer 75

In ecological systems theory, the level of environmental influence that is most distal to the developing individual and that affects all other systems. It includes the values, traditions, and sociocultural characteristics of the larger society

Question 76

Chronosystem

Answer 76

In ecological systems theory, changes and continuities occurring over time that influence an individual’s development.

Question 77

Separation anxiety

Answer 77

The normal apprehension experienced by a young child when away from the person or people to whom they are attached

Question 78

Solitary play

Answer 78

Play where a child is near others but focused on their own activity

Question 79

Foreclosure status

Answer 79

Premature commitment to an identity: the unquestioning acceptance by individuals (usually adolescents) of the role, values, and goals that others (e.g., parents, close friends, teachers, athletic coaches) have chosen for them
ASK MS. PALMER

Question 80

Moratorium status

Answer 80

In Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, the experimental period of adolescence in which, during the task of discovering who one is as an individual separate from family of origin and as part of the broader social context, young people try out alternative roles before making permanent commitments to an identity

Question 81

Conditioned emotional response

Answer 81

Any negative emotional response, typically fear or anxiety, that becomes associated with a neutral stimulus as a result of classical conditioning

Question 82

Positive punishment

Answer 82

Punishment that results because some stimulus or circumstance is presented as a consequence of a response. For example, if a response results in presentation of a loud noise and the response becomes less likely as a result of this experience, then positive punishment has occurred.

Question 83

Negative punishment

Answer 83

Punishment that results because some stimulus or circumstance is removed as a consequence of a response. For example, if a response results in a subtraction of money from an accumulating account, and the response becomes less likely as a result of this experience, then negative punishment has occurred

Question 84

Chaining

Answer 84

An operant conditioning technique in which a complex behavioral sequence is learned. Animals, both human and nonhuman, can be taught to perform relatively elaborate sequences of activities by this method

Question 85

Learned helplessness

Answer 85

The hopelessness and passive resignation humans and other animals learn when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Question 86

Martin Seligman

Answer 86

Developed the theory of learned helplessness which describes how individuals can learn to feel powerless in a situation even if they have the ability to change it

Question 87

Vicarious conditioning

Answer 87

The acquisition of information, skills, or behavior through watching the performance of others, either directly or via such media as films and videos

Question 88

Adolescent egocentrism

Answer 88

The feeling of personal uniqueness often experienced in adolescence; that is, the conviction that one is special and is or should be the constant focus of others’ attention