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unit 3 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

purpose of nucleic acid

A

storing and transmitting genetic information

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2
Q

how are nucleotides connected

A

condensation reaction

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3
Q

DNA bases

A

Adenine, Thymine, Guamine, Cytosine

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4
Q

RNA bases

A

Adenine, Uracil, Guamine, Cytosine

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5
Q

how are nitrogen bases connected

A

hydrogen bonds

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6
Q

anti parallel meaning

A

1 backbone of DNA must be uspside down

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7
Q

importance of complimentary base pairing

A

makes sure both cells get same DNA in cell division

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8
Q

DNA expression meaning

A

when DNA is used to build stuff for the cell

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9
Q

gene

A

part of DNA that’s used to build stuff
small amount

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10
Q

transcription and translation

A

Transcription
DNA information gets copied onto RNA
DNA pairs up with the RNA nucleotides
Translation
RNA gets taken to ribosome to be turned into protein
RNA and RNA pair up

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11
Q

DNA length

A

can be any lengths
multiply x4 by each added nucleotide
diameter is about 2 nanometers
small so a lot of DNA can be stored

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12
Q

how many nucleotides does a ribosome read at 1 time

A

3- called codon

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13
Q

what does the codon say

A

to add 1 amino acid

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14
Q

codon definition

A

triplet in RNA

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15
Q

how many different codons are there

A

64

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16
Q

exceptions to universal code

A

-mitochondria
-chloroplast

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17
Q

when does DNA replication happen

A

in the S phase of interphase

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18
Q

what does semi conservative replication mean

A

the new DNA strand is half old and half new

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19
Q

process of DNA replication

A

the DNA is unwound(flattened) and unzipped(hydrogen bonds broken) by the enzyme helicase. the sides are used as templates for new sides.
nucleotides pair up using complimentary base pairing.

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20
Q

where does DNA replication occur

A

nucleus
(small area means more concentration which means sped up chemical reactions)

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21
Q

what is DNA polymerase used for

A

makes sure that nucleotide is matching with DNA nucleotide
matches bases
builds covalent bonds for new DNA backbone

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22
Q

what is pcr

A

used to make many copies of single dna

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23
Q

what is needed for pcr

A

DNA strand
enzymes
new nucleotides
primer
temperature(breaks bonds instead of helicase)
polymerase

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24
Q

PCR steps

A

loading
heated up and denatured
cooled down
heated again to optimum temperature
TAQ polymerase makes new strand
DNA amplified many times in a couple hours

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25
Q

what is TAQ polymerase

A

comes from bacteria that lives in hot water meaning it has adaptation to withstand heat

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26
Q

what is gel electrophoresis

A

separates molecules by size and charge

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27
Q

gel electrophoresis steps

A

-amplified
-dna cut up
-put into wells in gel
- electric current separates molecules by size

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28
Q

what is DNA measured by

A

how many base pairs there are
-known ladder vs unknown sizes

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29
Q

how do we have different traits if we have same genes

A

we have different alleles that are repeated different amount of times

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30
Q

how does DNA profiling work

A

match known to unknown
identical means same person, similar means relative

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31
Q

DNA profiling examples

A

-forensic investigations
-databases
-paternity suit-need DNA of mother,father and child

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32
Q

transcription definition

A

when DNA code is copied onto RNA code

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33
Q

transcription steps

A

-dna is unzipped by RNA polymerase
-RNA polymerase matches nucleotides
-mRNA leaves nucleus and takes message to ribosome in cytoplasm for translation(only one side of DNA is transcriped to build RNA)

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34
Q

sense vs anti sense strand

A

sense: the unused strand
anti sense: the used strand

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35
Q

gene definition

A

part of DNA that’s transcribed then translated onto protein

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36
Q

what does DNA do during transcription

A

it unzips briefly then closes right away to protect DNA from radiation, chemicals, etc so genese stay the same

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37
Q

why isn’t helicase used in protein synthesis

A

so that the DNA zips back up and hydrogen bonds automatically reform

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38
Q

gene expression meaning

A

some genes are expressed and made into proteins and some do not.
this is the reason for differences between our cells, and also between ours and other peoples cells.

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39
Q

transcriptome definition

A

all of the transcripts/mRNA that get made in a persons cells.
-every person has unique

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40
Q

where does translation occur

A

on ribosomes

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41
Q

building block of protein

A

amino acids

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42
Q

translation steps

A
  1. mRNA attaches to ribosome
  2. ribosome reads 1 codon at a time(3 nucleotides)
  3. tRNA brings in amino acids based on codon its pairing with
  4. peptide bonds forms between amino acids
  5. anticodon leaves
  6. polypeptide forms
  7. polypeptide bends to make 3D shape and protein
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43
Q

what is rRNA

A

what ribosome is made of

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44
Q

what is an anticodon

A

bottom of tRNA that goes with codon

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45
Q

what is the start codon

A

AUG
- codes for methionine

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46
Q

what does degenerate code mean

A

same codons code for same amino acid

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47
Q

what is a mutation

A

any change in DNA
-change in amino acid>change in shape>change in DNA

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48
Q

base substitution

A

wrong added base
-usually no effect

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49
Q

beneficial mutation example

A

adaptations

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50
Q

what kind of mutation is sickle cell anemia

A

base substitution

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51
Q

cause of sickle cell anemia

A

codon is supposed to be GAG but GUG shows
glutamic acid to valine
themoglobin is abnormal and makes red blood cells change shape which means they’re not good at carrying oxygen and cant carry out cell respiration-causes tiredness and pain

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52
Q

GAG codes for what?

A

glutamic acid

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53
Q

GUG codes for what

A

valine

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54
Q

co dominant disease meaning

A

both alleles are dominant

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55
Q

why is sickle cell trait common

A

it gives resistance to malaria
gives advantage in Africa so it was passed down-natural selection

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56
Q

what makes DNA stable

A

base pairing, covalent bonds, and because it zips back up after being opened

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57
Q

types of mutations

A

same sense
non sense
missense
insertion
deletion

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58
Q

why might a mutation not cause a change

A

if its in place without genes

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59
Q

what is a same sense mutation

A

1 base is changed to another but codes for same amino acid(no change)

60
Q

what is a non sense mutation

A

when a stop codon is added-dysfunctional protein- harmful

61
Q

what is a missense mutation

A

changes codon which changes amino acid which changes protein-can be beneficial(adaptations), harmful(disease), or neutral(hair color)

62
Q

what is an allele

A

different form of same gene-started as mutation

63
Q

single nucleotide polymorphism

A

place in DNA sequence where 1 allele is different than others

64
Q

what is a frame shift mutation

A

insertion or deletion
-harmful because all amino acids are changed
-whole codons doesn’t necessarily change protein because it doesn’t affect base pairing

65
Q

what is the BRCA 1 gene

A

-gene used for breast cancer predictions
-20000 variants/alleles

66
Q

what is a mutagen

A

anything in environment that increases chance for mutation

67
Q

mutagen examples

A

radiation
chemicals

68
Q

what are somatic cells

A

normal cells
mutations usually aren’t affective unlecc cancerous

69
Q

oncogenes definition

A

make protein that regulate cell cycle

70
Q

what kind of cells contain mutations that can be passed down

A

germ cells-egg or sperm

71
Q

what is a genome

A

all DNA in organism- how much and what order

72
Q

similarities in genomes between species

A

same species have very similar genome, especially in same population
differenct species having similar genome size comes from evolution

73
Q

differences in genomes between species in different populations

A

different populations develop different traits which changes into different species over time by natural selection
they have different genes and different sized genomes but always same genetic code

74
Q

what is genome sequencing

A

the exact order of code
(A,T, G, and C’s)

75
Q

what were the 1st genomes sequenced

A

simple like viruses and bacteria

76
Q

human genome project

A

attempt to sequence 3 bill base pairs
we invented new tech
now we can sequence human genome in few weeks

77
Q

what is the purpose of adding more organisms to be sequenced

A

to add to “knowledge database” and to compare to human genes to study

78
Q

benefit to human genome sequencing

A

identifying possible diseases

79
Q

how do chromosomes compare across different species

A

genes are located in different chromosomes between different species
-different # and type

80
Q

what are chromosomes like in prokaryotes

A

1circular

81
Q

what are chromosomes like in eukaryotes

A

many linear
they match up
even number

82
Q

what are diploid cells

A

2 sets of chromosomes
-most human cells

83
Q

what are haploid cells

A

1 set of chromosomes
-reproductive cells

84
Q

role of diploid and haploid cells in reproduction

A

haploid cells fertilize each other to create diploid cells in offspring
Offspring will have half chromosomes from mom, and half from dad.

85
Q

number of chromosomes in humans

A

46
-23 in each set

86
Q

what does staining do for seeing chromosomes

A

increases contrast of chromosomes so that they can be seen better
-stains attach to proteins really well

87
Q

where does a karyogram come from

A

metaphase in mitosis

88
Q

what is a karyogram

A

picture of chromosome

89
Q

female chromosomes

A

xx

90
Q

male chromosomes

A

xy

91
Q

what organisms does meiosis happen in

A

sexually reproducing eukaryotes

92
Q

process of meiosis simple

A

meiosis splits homologous pairs in diploid cells into haploid cells
meiosis produces gametes

93
Q

why must sexual organisms produce haploid cells

A

sperm and egg fuse so that haploid cells can create diploid cells and produce zygote

94
Q

what is a gamete

A

sexually reproductive cells-egg or sperm

95
Q

what is a zygote

A

fertilized egg after gametes meet

96
Q

prophase I

A

-nucleus dissolves
-chromosomes condense
-mtoc forms
-2 homologous chromosomespair into bivalents by synapsis to make sure they’re evenly split
-crossing over happens- exchange of dna

97
Q

where does crossing over happen

A

the chiasmata

98
Q

what is genetic variation

A

lots of different combinations of genes due to crossing over

99
Q

metaphase I

A

homologous pairs align in middle by mtoc

100
Q

anaphase I

A

bivalents pulled apart by mtoc

101
Q

telophase I

A

2 new nuclei form
mtoc dissolves
chromosomes decondense

102
Q

cytokinesis I

A

split into 2 non indentical haploid cells

103
Q

prophase II

A

nucleus dissolves
chromosomes condense
mtoc forms
happening in 2 cells at one time

104
Q

metaphase II

A

chromosomes moved to middle by mtoc

105
Q

anaphase II

A

chromatids pulled apart by mtoc

106
Q

telophase II

A

chromosomes decondense
4 nuclei form
mtoc dissolves

107
Q

cytokinesis II

A

4 non identical haploid cells

108
Q

sources of genetic variation

A
  1. crossing over
  2. random orientation- in metaphase, randomly split in anaphase
  3. random fusion of gametes-any egg can fertilize any sperm
109
Q

what is non disjunction

A

chromosomes don’t separate like theyre supposed to causing resulting cell to have extra or not enough

110
Q

what is down syndrome

A

chromosome 21 sticks to itself causing there to be an extra
symptoms : learning disability, flattened face and hands, health problems. benefits like happiness and friendliness

111
Q

inheritance definition

A

how traits get passed from parents to offspring

112
Q

crossing traits

A

breeding to produce offspring
P1 generate make F1 gen which makes F2
-mendel did this manually with pea plants to make sure they didn’t self pollinate

113
Q

what is a genotype

A

combination of alleles

114
Q

what is a phenotype

A

what it looks like
-comes from genotype or environment

115
Q

what is phenotype plasticity

A

environment changes DNA which then changes phenotype

116
Q

phenotype plasticity example

A

arctic fox’s fur changing color in different seasons

117
Q

what makes alleles different

A

the base pairs

118
Q

what is the place where alleles are different

A

single nucleotide polymorphism

119
Q

why are most diseases in humans recessive

A

if it was dominant we would die before passing it on

120
Q

what is pku

A

on chromosome 12
both chromosomes have to have it
protein made is called phenylalanine hydroxylase which is converted to tyrosine
causes tyrosine to go down and phenylalanine to go up
causes brain delays and disabilities in babies

121
Q

how are pregnant mothers screened for pku

A

checking amino acids and DNA sequencing

122
Q

pku treatment

A

diet of intaking more tyrosine and eating less phenylalanine

123
Q

what does it mean to have multiple allele trait

A

more than 2 options
genotype has more possibilities for alleles
-still only 2 alleles from parents
-creates blend of traits

124
Q

gene pool

A

all possible alleles within population
-includes likelihood

125
Q

gene pool examples

A

S gene in apples
-32 different alleles
-prevent self fertilization
-evolved over time to increase genetic variation
Blood type
-A, B, AB, O
-alleles code for glycoproteins which are often antigens

126
Q

blood type alleles in punnett square

A

A- I^A
B-I^B
O- i

127
Q

codominant trait in phenotype

A

both traits show up at same time

128
Q

incomplete dominance

A

when 2 traits mix together

129
Q

incomplete dominance example

A

marvel of Peru flowers
-white +red flower=pink flowers

130
Q

what is an autosome

A

the 22 pairs of chromosomes that aren’t sex chromosomes

131
Q

differences in traits between x and y chromosomes

A

x chromosomes are larger and carry more genes
carry different genes than y
y chromosome has tdf gene which makes embryo male

132
Q

what are the genes on sex chromosomes called

A

sex linked

133
Q

how did Thomas hunt morgan find that white eyes in fruit flies are sex linked

A

they were present mainly in males

134
Q

why is color blindness more common in males

A

males only need 1 recessive allele for it. there is nothing covering the allele.

135
Q

what is hemophilia

A

there’s a gene on x chromosomes that makes blood clot and with hemophilia the protein is made wrong

136
Q

what is a pedigree

A

helps track trait in families/sees if you have allele in DNA

137
Q

what things lead to genetic diversity

A

multiple alleles, codominance, incomplete dominance, and sex linked chromosomes

138
Q

how are many of our traits affected by more than just 1 gene

A

multiple different proteins make 1 trait

139
Q

what is polygenic inheritance

A

genes make many different proteins which work together to make trait

140
Q

what is discrete variation

A

different options are very different

141
Q

example of discrete variation

A

blood type

142
Q

what is continuous variation

A

blend of traits so you can’t always see difference
-normal distribution: most at average

143
Q

continuous variation example

A

height
skin color
-environment affects these

144
Q

mitosis vs meiosis

A

Both: form of cell division, interphase happens first
Meiosis: -reduction division
-produces sexually reproducing cells
-produces 4 genetically different haploid cells
Mitosis: -produces 2 genetically identical diploid cells
-keeps number of chromosomes the same
-for growth and cell replacement

145
Q

why are alleles different

A

different base sequence

Ib bio (4 decks)

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