Unit 2b: Cognition Flashcards
memory
the basis of knowing things
our ability to encode, store, and retrieve information
Multi-Store Model
(Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968)
3 stages
- sensory memory
- short term memory
- long term memory
Sensory Memory
held by raw, unprocessed form
Iconic Memory
- a type of sensory memory
-holds visual information; <1
Echoic Memory
- a type of sensory memory
- holds auditory information; 2-4 seconds
Short-term Memory
the temporary storage of info
- capacity of 7 objects(give or take 2)
- duration of 15-30 seconds
Long-Term Memory
memory stored for extended periods
- minute to a lifetime
- virtually unlimited capacity
- include explicit/implicit memory
Long-term potentional
repeated stimulation leads to stronger connections between neurons.
- consolidation of long-term memories
Working Memory Model
(Baddley & Fitch 1974)
Replace short-term M with long-term M
Includes:
- central executive
- phonological loop
- visuospatial sketchpad
- Episodic Buffer
Central Executive
controls and coordinates the activites of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.
encode and retrieve
manage attention
integrate information
regulate cognition
Phonological Loop
deals with auditory and verbal information
allows mental visualization and manipulation
Visuospatial Sketchpad
deals with visual and spatial information
allows mental visualization and manipulation
Explicit Memory
conscious
information
effortful
Implicit Memory
automatic
skills
feelings
effortless
Episodic Memory
recall of specific events/experiences
Semantic memory
recall of general knowledge, facts, and concepts.
Procedural Memory
recall of performing tasks/skills
- ride a bike
- type on keyboard without looking
Emotional Conditioning
learning to associate events with feelings
Prospective Memory
involves remembering to perform activities or fulfill intentions in the future.
encoding
converting sensory input into a farm that can be stored and later retrieved from memory.
Automatic Processing
unconscious and effortless encoding of information that occurs without deliberate attention or intentional effort.
Effortful
Processing
deliberate and concious encoding of information that requires focused attention and cognitive effort.
Levels of Processing Model
suggest that the depth at which info is processed affects how well it is remembered.
Memory Consolidation
newly acquired information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory.
transformation of fragile, short-term memories into more stable and enduring long-term memories.
Shallow Encoding
A type of encoding that focuses on the surface features of information, such as its physical characteristics or appearance.
Shallow encoding is less effective for long-term retention and often involves structural or phonemic processing.
Deep Encoding
A type of encoding that involves a more meaningful and semantic analysis of information.
Deep encoding is associated with better memory retention because it involves understanding and relating the information to existing knowledge.
Spacing Effect
information is better retained when study or practice sessions are spaced out over time
allows time for consolidation between learning sessions
Primacy Effect
tendency to better remember items presented at the beginning of a list.
early items have more time to be encoded into long-term memory
Recency Effect
tendency to better remember items presented at the end of a list.
recent items are still in short-term memory and are more readily accessible
Serial Position Effect
The tendency to better remember items presented at the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of a list, while items in the middle are less well remembered.
The serial position effect highlights how the position of information within a sequence can influence recall.
Massed Practice
learning sessions are concentrated into a single, extended period
Distributed Practice
learning sessions are spread out over time, with breaks between.
Mnemonic Devices
Memory aids or techniques that use associations, patterns, or imagery to enhance the encoding and retrieval of information.
Method of Loci
involves associating items to be remembered with specific locations or landmarks in a familiar mental image of a place.
By mentally “walking through” these locations, individuals can recall the associated items.
Chunking
memory technique that involves grouping or organizing individual pieces of information into larger, more manageable units or “chunks.”
Hierarchies
system of organizing information into levels of complexity; broader categories are subdivided into more detailed subcategories.
structural encoding
A shallow level of encoding that involves focusing on the physical or structural aspects of information, such as the appearance of words or objects.
For example, noting whether a word is written in uppercase or lowercase.
Phoenemic Encoding
A shallow level of encoding that involves processing the sound or auditory characteristics of information.
For example, focusing on the pronunciation or rhyme of words.
Memory Retention
ability to preserve and maintain info over time.
Maintenance Rehearsal
- short term M
- repetition without context
- often leads to forgetting
Elaborative Rehearsal
- long term M
- contextualize information for storage/retrieval
- often leads to durable M
Autobiographical Memory
explicit memory that involves the recollection of events from one’s own life.
- contains both episodic and semantic elements
- creates a coherent personal story
Retrograde Amnesia
loss of existing memory
Anterograde Amnesia
inability to form new memories
Infantile Amenisa
we forget/have limited memories from before 3-4 years of age
Alzheimer’s Disease
fatal
damage to hippocampus
progressive neruological disorder that leads to a decline in memory, cognitive function, and daily functioning
causes:
- amyloid plaques
- Tau tangles
Retrieval
accessing and bringing stored info from memory into conscious awareness
Recognition
memory retreival where individuals identify previously encountered info when presented with it again.
ex. MCQs
Recall
memory retrieval where individuals retrieve information without the aid of specific cues.
ex. FRQs
Retreival Cues
stimuli or hints that help trigger the recall of stored information from memory
Context-Dependent Memory
info is easily recalled when the context or environment during retrieval matches the context or environment during encoding.
State-Dependent Memory
info is more easily recalled when an individual internal state during retreival matches the state during encoding
- emotional state - angry
- physical state - drunk
What is forgetting?
an inability to retrieve information.
could be due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval
Forgetting Curve
graph that depicts the decline of memory retention over time.
most forgetting occurs soon after the initial learning.
revisiting the material multiple times leads to less forgetting
Encoding Failure
inability to store information in long-term memory due to insufficient or ineffective encoding processes.
Proactive Inteference
older memories hinder the ability to remember new information
Retreoactive Interference
new information disrupts the recall of previous information
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
temporary inability to retrieve information that one knows is stored in memory
accompanied by a sense of knowing that the information is just out of reach.
Repression (Psychodynamic)
defense mechanism proposed by Sigmund Freud
distressing memories are unconsciously blocked from conscious awareness.
supposedly protects individuals from painful or traumatic experiences
Constructive Memory
memory is a constructive process
we create (or reconstruct) memories based on existing knowledge, beliefs, and expectations.
there are often distortions and inaccuracies in our memory
Misinformation Effect
alteration of a person’s memory of an event due to exposure to misleading or incorrect information after the event.
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
Aim:
to see the effect of leading questions on eyewitness testimony.
Imagination Inflation
imagining or picturing an event in detail increases the likelihood of mistakenly believing that the event actually occurred.
Source Amnesia
remembering facts or details without remembering where or how they were learned.
