Unit ? Flashcards
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. (p. 391)
hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. (p. 393)
homeostasis
a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. (p. 391)
incentive
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. (p. 392)
instinct
a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned. (p. 391)
motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. (p. 390)
Yerkes-Dodson law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases. (p. 392)
basal metabolic rate
the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure. (p. 398)
glucose
the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. (p. 397)
set point
the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. (p. 398)
estrogens
sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity. (p. 408)
refractory period
a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another. (p. 407)
sexual dysfunction
a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning. (p. 407)
sexual response cycle
the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson–excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. (p. 406)
testosterone
the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. (p. 408)
Cannon-Bard theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion. (p. 422)
emotion
a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience. (p. 421)
James-Lange theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. (p. 421)
polygraph
a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes) accompanying emotion. (p. 428)
two-factor theory
the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal. (p. 422)
health psychology
a subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine. (p. 439)
facial feedback effect
the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness. (p. 438)
stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging. (p. 442)
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases–alarm, resistance, exhaustion. (p. 444)
tend and befriend
under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend). (p. 445)
coronary heart disease
the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries. (p. 451)
lymphocytes
the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances. (p. 448)
psychoneuroimmunology
the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health. (p. 448)
psychophysiological illness
literally, “mind-body” illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches. (p. 448)
Type A
Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people. (p. 452)
Type B
Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people. (p. 452)
free association
in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring unconscious in which the personrelaxes and says whatever comesto mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
psychoanalysis
Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.
unconscious
according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes,feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
ID
a reservoir of unconsciouspsychic energy that, accordingto Freud, strives to satisfy basicsexual and aggressive drives. The idoperates on the pleasure principle,demanding immediate gratification.
Ego
the largely conscious,“executive” part of personalitythat, according to Freud, mediatesamong the demands of the id,superego, and reality. The egooperates on the reality principle,satisfying the id’s desires in waysthat will realistically bring pleasurerather than pain.
superego
the part of personality that, according to Freud, representsinternalized ideals and providesstandards for judgment (theconscience) and for futureaspirations.
psychosexual stages
the childhood stages of development(oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital)during which, according to Freud,the id’s pleasure-seeking energiesfocus on distinct erogenous zones.
Oedipus [ED-uh-puss] complex
according to Freud, a boy’s sexualdesires toward his mother andfeelings of jealousy and hatred forthe rival father.
identification
the process by which, according to Freud, childrenincorporate their parents’ valuesinto their developing superegos.
fixation
according to Freud, alingering focus of pleasure-seekingenergies at an earlier psychosexualstage, in which conflicts wereunresolved.
defense mechanisms
in psycho-analytic theory, the ego’s protectivemethods of reducing anxiety byunconsciously distorting reality.
Repression
repression in psychoanalytictheory, the basic defensemechanism that banishes fromconsciousness anxiety-arousingthoughts, feelings, and memories.
psychodynamic theories
modern-day approaches that viewpersonality with a focus on theunconscious and the importance ofchildhood experiences.
collective unconscious
Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inheritedreservoir of memory traces from ourspecies’ history.
projective test
a personality test, such as the Rorschach, thatprovides ambiguous stimulidesigned to trigger projection ofone’s inner dynamics.
Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)
a projective test in whichpeople express their inner feelingsand interests through the stories theymake up about ambiguous scenes.
Rorschach
the mostwidely used projective test, a set of10 inkblots, designed by HermannRorschach; seeks to identifypeople’s inner feelings by analyzingtheir interpretations of the blots.
false consensus effect
thetendency to overestimate the extentto which others share our beliefsand our behaviors.
terror-management theory
atheory of death-related anxiety;explores people’s emotional andbehavioral responses to remindersof their impending death.
humanistic theories
viewpersonality with a focus on thepotential for healthy personalgrowth.
self-actualization
accordingto Maslow, one of the ultimatepsychological needs that arises afterbasic physical and psychologicalneeds are met and self-esteem isachieved; the motivation to fulfillone’s potential.
unconditional positive regard
according to Rogers, anattitude of total acceptance towardanother person.
self-concept
all our thoughts andfeelings about ourselves, in answerto the question, “Who am I?”
a questionnaire (often with true-falseor agree-disagree items) on whichpeople respond to items designed togauge a wide range of feelings andbehaviors; used to assess selectedpersonality traits.
trait
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
the most widely researched andclinically used of all personalitytests. Originally developed toidentify emotional disorders (stillconsidered its most appropriateuse), this test is now used for manyother screening purposes.
empirically derived test
a test(such as the MMPI) developed bytesting a pool of items and thenselecting those that discriminatebetween groups.
reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences ofbehavior, internal cognition, andenvironment.
positive psychology
the scientific study of optimal humanfunctioning; aims to discover and promote strengths andvirtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive.
self
in contemporary psychology,assumed to be the center ofpersonality, the organizer of ourthoughts, feelings, and actions.
spotlight effect
overestimatingothers’ noticing and evaluatingour appearance, performance,and blunders (as if we presume aspotlight shines on us).
self-esteem
one’s feelings of high or low self-worth.
self-efficacy
one’s sense of competence and effectiveness.
self-serving bias
a readiness to perceive oneself favorably.
narcissism
excessive self-love and self-absorption.
individualism
giving priority toone’s own goals over group goalsand defining one’s identity in termsof personal attributes rather thangroup identifications.
collectivism
giving priority tothe goals of one’s group (oftenone’s extended family or workgroup) and defining one’s identityaccordingly.
